.■■■■■ ' . -; . ■ * , . • ■

OUR COUNTRY

class jEjt_^6

Book.

(kpightSi

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

I'hutu by Hurriu i Swing

"THE HEART OE THE NATION'

OUR COUNTRY

AND

ITS RESOURCES

WHAT WE OUGHT TO KNOW ABOUT AGRICULTURE -FISHERIES
FORESTS PANAMA CANAL- RAILROADS MANUFACTURES
AUTOMOBILES - INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS - THE
NEW NAVY-THE ARMY-OUR MONEY-AERO-
NAUTICS-MOTION PICTURES-THE
WEATHER - ASTRONOMY - THE
NATIONS CAPITAL-THE
PRESIDENT-CONGRESS
ALL ABOUT THE
GOVERNMENT

BY

ALBERT A. HOPKINS

Member of the American Statistical Association
Editor of the Scientific American Reference Book
Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas, etc.

With 8(10 Illustrations

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES

NEW YORK
M U N N & CO., INC.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE
1917

Copyright 1916 by Munn & Co., Inc.

This book is protected by ninety copyrights
and all persons are warned against any

use of text or illustrative material.

The righl of translation into all languagef
Including the Scandinavian, is reserved.

Printed in the United states of America.

CEC 27 1916

Composition, I'resswork and Electrotyping by

M aiv.owan & Slipper. 30 Beekrrmn St
New York, N. v., V. S A.

'CI. A 4 5:j:;--' I

PREFACE

THE "Wave of Prosperity" which has raised our coun-
try to an unparalleled position need not ever recede
if we take measure of our resources and their development
at the present time and act wisely upon the information
obtained. It is the object of this modest volume to present
such facts as can be obtained from official sources, in a
readable and withal likable form, so that we may have a
more wholesome respect for what Uncle Sam is doing for
us. The "Stars and Stripes" are protected by Acts of
Congress and State laws; the American Eagle cannot be
kept in captivity (except in a zoological garden), but the
power of the law has never been invoked to protect that
symbol of our Federal Government — "Uncle Sam." This
kindly old gentleman with his fuzzy beaver hat, his striped
trousers and his parti-colored coat of the period of 1830,
is used dozens of times daily in cartoons, but always in a
respectful sense as we use it here — as a symbol of national
esteem.

There is no more fascinating story in the world than
how we are governed by means of often invisible threads
that seem to begin nowhere, but always end somewhere
to our profit and often pleasure. Who shall tell this
wonderful story of achievement? How five blades of
grass are made to grow where two should be found; how
fish that have been left high and dry on land after a flood
are put back in water to prevent "air drowning;" how
forests are conserved at a profit; how reclamation makes
the desert smile; how national parks can be run for both
profit and pleasure; how good roads decrease the cost of
living; how the three great Government Surveys carry on
their ceaseless work to exploit our resources, or chart the
fairways of commerce; how the Coast Guard is always on
the lookout to protect life and property at sea; how the
Patent Office has succeeded in making us a nation of

inventors and quadrupling our national wealth; how
commercial and industrial preparedness have changed the
gears on the car of industrial progress— all these and many
more remain to he told. Who shall tell the story? Win
not "let Uncle Sam do it" ? He is patient, kind, amiahle,
and exceedingly accurate in his information.

This is what has heen done here. Uncle Sam tells his
complex story in his own way with the pen of high
Government officials — cabinet officers, heads of the great
governmental manufacturing plants and bureaus under
C Government auspices, down the list until all of the
Government activities are accounted for. Unfortunately,
the names cannot always be published, owing to depart-
mental regulations, but enough names have been printed
throughout the book to stamp this as a very authentic,
and make it practically a semi-official guide to Govern-
ment activities. In the section known as "Uncle Sam's
Autobiography" every chapter has been submitted to
either the Secretary of the Department, or to some
responsible officer for revision. This has required an
almost endless correspondence, but the Editor has the
satisfaction of knowing that the information is as nearly
right as it is possible to get it.

Besides Government officials, named and unnamed,
special thanks are due to Mr. C. F. Talman, Librarian of
the U. S. Weather Bureau; Dr. F. L. Hoffman, Statis-
tician of the Prudential Insurance Company; Dr. Richard
Rathbun of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. Louis
Annin Ames, an authority on flags, and a number of
others who have given their kind assistance. Adequate
pictorial treatment heightens the interest of this fascinat-
ing subject, and the whole country has been canvassed for
interesting pictures; thus, for the chapter on Agriculture,
over 35,000 photographs were examined to select the
significant ones.

It is hoped that this book will be a real contribution
to literature on true preparedness — preparedness for the
arts oi peace, as well as the arts of war.

Y////?////////////////M^^^

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part Om

UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS

I Geographical Discovery

II. Population : :

III. Agriculture : :

IV. The Fish We Eat :
V. Forests and Forestry

VI Reclamation Service

VII. Our National Parks

VIII. Good Roads and Bad

IX- The Panama Canal

X. The Three Great Government Surveys

XI. Government Protection of Life and Property at Sea

XII. Railroads of the United States : : :

XIII- The Postal Service : : :

XIV. Our Natural Resources and How They are Developed

XV. The Mineral Industry of the United States :

XVI. The Patent Office and Inventions Since 1845

XVII. Manufactures : : : : :

XVIII. The Automobile Industry : : :

XIX. The Recent Development of American Commerce

XX. Commercial and Industrial Preparedness

XXI. Education :

XXII. The New Navy

XXIII. The Army :

XXIV. Uncle Sam's Money

Part I. The Treasury :

Part II. Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Part III. The Assay Office : : :
Part IV. How Coins are Minted :

1

19

37

67

75

87

95

103

109

119

135

147

161

173

177

199

211

223

231

245

255

263

281

293
299
309
313

CHAPTER

XXV.
XXVI.

How Uncle Sam Protects His Revenue
Uncle Sam's Non-Contiguous Possessions

321

327

Part Two
OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE

I.

II.
III.
IV.

V.
VI.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XI i.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

The American Flag : :

Aeronautics : : : :
Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony
Motion Pictures in the Making
The Realm of the Air : :

The Heavens Above : :

Part Three
UNCLE SAM'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY

Washington — The Nation's City

The Legislative Halls :

The President — The Executive

The Cabinet : : :

Department of State :

Department of the Treasury

Department of War

Department of Justice

Post Office Department

Department of the Navy

Department of the Interior

Department of Agriculture

Department of Commerce

Department of Labor :

The Smithsonian Institution

Miscellaneous Activities of the Government

Pan American Union :

347
363
383
399
411
423

447
455
465
477
479
493
507
521
525
'526
539
547
561
572
575
582
591

>fcr-=

' A*

v

\V^

.-

J

^

^/

WHAT UNCLE SAM'S "0, K." LOOKS LIKE.

^Illlllllllllllllllllllllll|]||l!lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll!llllll[||||ll!|llll||||l|l||ll||l|l|||||||l|||l|||||ll!ll!lll!ll|l llllllllllll|ll|lll!l|ll|||l|lll||lll!lllllllllllllllllllllllll!lllllllllllllllllll!IIIIIIIIIKIII!lllllllllllliH

Copyright by United Newspapers, London: Underw 1 & Underwood, X. Y.

ONE OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMUNDSEN SOUTH POLE EXPEDITION STANDING

AT THE POLE
Taken by Captain Amundsen Himself

Copyright by Underw I & Underw l

CAPT. ROALD AMUNDSEN, WHO DIS-
COVERED THE SOUTH POLE ON
DECEMBER H. 1911.

Copyright by Underw I & Underw 1

CAPT. SCOTT. WHO ALSO FOUND THE
SOUTH POLE AFTER AMUNDSEN. ON
JANUARY 18, 1912, AND PERISHED.

Part I.

UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND
INTERESTS

CHAPTER I.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

By CYRUS C. ADAMS

THE greatest era of geograph-
ical discovery dawned when
Christopher Columbus, with
three small vessels, carrying 88 men.
sailed into the Unknown from Palos,
Spain, on August 3, 1492. The sig-
nificance of this voyage was not
only that it brought to light the
Western World, but that it also dis-
closed the sea as the great highway
of men by which they soon learned
to reach all the vast islands (con-
tinents) and the lesser islands of the
globe. Europe, for example, had a
very misty idea of China and India
till sea routes placed her in touch
with thein. Sea routes hugged the
coasts of Europe and Africa for
thousands of miles : but Columbus
added cross sea sailing to the coast
routes and thus brought in the day
of worldwide exploration.

The Vikings of Norway in the
ninth-tenth centuries A. D. had dis-
covered Iceland, Greenland and the
northeast coast of North America :
but these daring sea rovers wore
far from European centers : and as
it was thought that Greenland was
a part of Europe, their work was not
at all appreciated, and. in fact, was
very little known.
Columbus's four voyages, 1492-

1503, brought to light the larger and
many of the smaller islands of the
West Indies. He saw South America
from the island of Trinidad and
noted the freshness of the Gulf of
Paria's waters which come from the
Orinoco. He skirted the eastern
shores of Central America from
Guanaja Island, around Cape Gra-
cias a l>ios. paused at Belen on the
Isthmus of Panama, thence on to
Puerto Bello, the most southern
point he reached. His field of dis-
covery embraced the area between
about 9 to 24 degrees North Latitude
and 60 to 87 degrees West Longitude.
At St. Ann's Bay, on the north coast
of Jamaica, he ended his great
work about thirteen years after he
began it.

Immediate effects of his achieve-
ment were apparent. Ten days less
than a year after Columbus started
on his third voyage to America,
Vasco da Gama, after rounding the
Cape of Good Hope, landed at Cali-
cut, the first European navigator to
reach India. This was the begin-
ning of the great sea-trade between
Europe and the East Indies.

Thirteen years and .". months after
Columbus died. Magellan started on
his journey around the world (1519-

Copyright by Mini-.' & Co., Inc.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERS

21), was the first tu pass through
the Straits of Magellan, gave to the
Pacific the flattering name it hears
and his expedition circumnavigated
the world though its leader perished
in the Philippines. Among the other
most notable circumnavigations were
those of Sir Francis Drake (1577-
SO), during which he sailed along
the Pacific coast of America from
Magellan Straits nearly to Puget
Sound, seeking in vain for a water-
way into the Atlantic; Admiral Spil-
berg, who led a small Dutch fleet
around the world (1614-17), inci-
dentally defeating a Spanish fleet off
Chile; and Captain James Cook,
whose memorable voyages (1768-79)
placed him first among British mari-
time discoverers.

It was early in the 16th century
that Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian
adventurer, claimed that he had
made four voyages to America,
though not as the commander of any
expedition. The dates he gave were
1497, 1499, 1501 and 1503. From the
time that his writings were criti-
cally examined by Alexander von
Humboldt, the prevalent opinion has
been that he had no part whatever
in the first discovery of continental
America. Professor Martin Wald-
seemiiller of Lorraine unfortunately
gave full credence to Vespucci's
claims, wrote a book in 1507 in
which he said the newly discovered
continent should be called America
because "Americus discovered it."
and published the first map on which
the name America appeared. It was
the blunder of a scholar that at-
tached the name America instead of
"Columbia" to the Western World.
When John Cabot reached the
northeastern coast of North America
(1497) and landed on Cape Breton
Island at the entrance to the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, he believed he had
reached the eastern shores of Asia.
He returned home to announce the
news and, the following year, went
back to follow the whole coast and
locate Japan in the south. This
journey extended from Greenland

in .ii'ly as far south as the latitudi
Philadelphia, but as bo found no
suns of civilization and his supplies
were running short, he returned to
England.

V. Y. 1'inson. who was helpful to
Columbus on his first voyage, dis-
covered in 1500 the estuary of the
Amazon, the largest river in the
world. This was about 17 years after
Diego Cam found the mouth of the
Congo, the second greatest river.
About this time the idea began to
weaken that the short's which ex-
plorers had been visiting were coasts
of Asia. The population was too
scanty and none of it was civilized;
hut still, no explorer was instructed
to find what these new lands were
worth and how they might be util-
ized. The main idea, for a long
time, was to hunt for waterways
through the new lands by which the
spices of the East Indies and other
coveted Asian commodities might be
brought to the Atlantic countries of
Europe without doubling the Cape
of Good Hope.

It was while hunting for such a
passage, and by reason of stress of
weather, that Pedro Alvarez Cabral.
in 1500, sighted the coast of Brazil.
and took possession of it in the
name of Portugal. In a half cen-
tury, the whole Brazilian coast was
studded with Portuguese settle-
ments. The policy of appropriation
and development was under, way.
The avowed regime of the Portu-
guese was to win new lands, if pos-
sible, by preaching the Gospel to
the natives; if this failed, to sub-
jugate them by the sword.

The romantic episode in coastal
discovery was the voyage of Ponce
de Leon, of Spain, in 1512, author-
ized by his government to search
for and settle the fabulous island of
"Bimini." on which was reputed to
be a wonderful fountain that re-
newed the youth and strength of old
men who bathed in it. He failed to
find the fountain of youth, hut his
toil was not in vain, for he skirted
a long cast covered with flowers

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUE

and li«' therefore called t ho land
Florida and said he believed it was

a great island.

in 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa
heard from an Indian chief that,
south of the isthmus of Panama,
was another greal ocean. Climbing
to the summit of the Isthmian
range, Balboa saw the Pacific; and
arriving at the shore on September
29, lie proclaimed the "Great South
Sea" to be a possession of the Span-
ish king, lie was planning to under-
take the conquesl of the Peruvians
for the Spanish crown when the
jealous governor of the Darien col-
ony put him to death on a trumped

up Charge of disloyalty. The fate
of Balboa, one of the ahlest men
in the Spanish service, was a pa-
thetic incident in the early history

of American discovery.
Those data briefly summarize the

leading events in discovery and
early exploration along the eastern
coasts of the Americas. Then fol-
lowed the era of the penetration of
the lands i I6th-19th centuries). In
North America, the gigantic task of
studying the vast interior to the
north of the Kio Grande was the
work mainly of English and French
explorers ami European immigrants
who followed in their wake. But
many Spanish enterprises took root
in the present Texas. New Mexico,
Arizona and California. The Spanish
<»\ er ran the whole of ( Vntral and
South America, excepting Brazil,
seeking gold rather than orderly ex-
ploration and economic development.
imposing upon the natives also the
most cruel subjugation. Bui this
eager quest for treasure so prodded
exploratory zeal that South America
was better known and mapped than
North America towards the end of
the lsih c< atury.

In 1516, De Soils discovered and
ascended the Liver Plata and was
killed by Indians at the delta i<\' the

Parana, near where Buenos Aires
stands. In 1519 21, while Magellan
was sailing around the world. Cor-
tez. a milltarj genius and a monster

of cruelty, conquered Mexico and ex-
plored the Peninsula of Lower Cal-
ifornia. Among the great geograph-
ical results of the advancing Spanish

conquesl was the descent of the
Amazon River from the Amies to the
Atlantic by Orellana. In one of
his wars witli Indians, women
fought beside the men of their tribe,
which originated the name Amazons
applied to female warriors. Wliile
the main river has been known for
.".on years from the Andes to the
sea. much of its basin between the
main tributaries of the trunk stream
still awaits detailed study.

The incentive to North American
exploration was long the desire to
find a northwest waterway leading
to the Pacific. Jacques Carrier
(1536) discovered the St. Lawrence
River and ascended it to tl i
of Montreal. He saw the Ottawa
from the top of Mount Royal, which
gave Montreal its name. Cham-
plain (1603-17), the greatest of
Canadian explorers, founded the
town of Quebec, traced the St.
Lawrence to its source in Lake On-
tario ami reached Lake Huron. 1 te
was hoping all the time to find a
waterway to China. Henry Hudson
i 1609) sailed into New York Bay
and up the Hudson River to the
site of Albany before he decided
that the route would not lead to the
Pacific. While on the same quest
in Hudson Lay (1610), he and some
of his men were set adrift by mut-
inous comrades and were not heard
of again.

About 1660 the exploration of the
continental interior without thought
of reaching the Orient, became more
prominent, it has often required a
number of explorers to establish a
geographical fact. Thus French ex-
plorers, chiefly missionaries, as Joli-
et and Marquette, revealed the Mis-
sissippi between its atllueiits. the
Wisconsin and the Arkansas, within
TOO miles of the Gulf of Mexico
i L660 7:: i. Lather Hennepin ( 1680)
traced the upper Mississippi between
the mouth of the Illinois River and

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

the site of Minneapolis. Its lower
course had been followed by Ferdi-
nand de Soto (1541). De Soto has
often been called the discoverer of
the Mississippi, but fhe river was
first sighted by Alonzo de Pineda in
1519. Its extreme sources and upper
course were discovered and studied
by later explorers, chiefly School-
craft (1S32), Nicollet (1S36), and
Brower (1889).

The exploration of the Great
Lakes- was distributed over many
years. The pioneers who chopped
their way through the forests from
the Atlantic to the Mississippi, or
opened farms in spite of Indian foes.
in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio,
the trappers and hunters spread
over the western plains, the gold
diggers who rushed to California, all
added immensely to early knowledge
of the United States.

In regions that have had from
early time, comparatively dense pop-
ulation and rapid growth in civi-
lization, we hear little of such re-
search as that, for example, which
has gridironed Africa with explor-
ers' routes. Communities, such as
Greece, Rome, China and Japan, as
they grew in intellectual power, be-
came intense students of their own
habitat : and their armies, invading
less fortunate lands, were the chief
instrument of pioneer discovery. No
large events in exploration have
been possible in Europe within the
Columbian era. Among the most
important discoveries in Asia have
been these : Deshnev rounded the
East Cape (Cape Deshnev) in 1645.
and thus made known the most east-
ern extension of the continent. Rus-
sia began the scientific exploration
of Siberia in 1725 and, in the next
twenty years, the northern coasts
were fairly well determined and a
foundation was laid for the detailed
study of the land surface, fauna
flora and inhabitants. P.ering (172.~i
41) showed the relation between the
northeast coast of Asia and the
northwest coast of America. In the
past fifty years, the great plains and

forests have been studied, the Lena,
Yenesei and Ob, three of the largest
rivers in the world, have been ex-
plored and the Yenesei and Ob have
irregular steamship connections
with European ports. One result
of the study of Siberia is that over
20,000,000 acres are now under the
plow.

Tibet, so long a terra incognito.
has been largely revealed, chiefly
since 1863, by many explorers. The
Himalayas have long been in pro-
cess of detailed study by the Indian
Survey, and India has been min-
utely mapped.

Australia was probably first seen
about 1540 by French sailors, but
it was early in the next century that
the Dutch brought the first authen-
tic accounts of parts of the west
coast. Capt. James Cook's voyage
(1769-70), when he surveyed the
whole east coast, made the first great
contribution to knowledge of the
continent. Inland exploration did
not begin till the early part of the
19th century. Attempts to pene-
trate the dry or desert regions of
the interior with horses involved a
number of tragedies, including the
disappearance of the second Leich-
ardt expedition (1847). Leichardt
sel out to cross the continent from
east to west and was never heard
from after he entered the desert.
Xot even in polar lands was explora-
tion so hazardous as in Australia
till the camel was introduced about
1865; then exploration advanced
more rapidly and Australia is now
known in all its chief configurations
and conditions.

The attempt to reveal the whole of
Africa did not begin till Dr. David
Livingstone (1841-73) completed his
great work. The exploration of the
continent was greatly retarded by
the difficulties of getting into it,
owing to the lack of indentations.
the high coasts, rivers reaching the
sea by cataracts and rapids, the un-
favorable climate and a host of hos-
tile native tribes. The modern era
of African exploration began when

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

ROCKY MTft

:gart
19,539 Greenwich 0* Meridian!

Hudson P. A Tl.A S'T/C OCEA N

"UV«-W

FATHOMS

ROCKY MTS.
Fremont Pk. Vi*

PACIFIC OCEAN . _ ^a Scoiia^rt/tAT/C OttM.V

AW. Indies

SEA LEVEL {f^

3.000.
FATHOMS

20.000

SEA LEvElIJ

THE^NDES
L Titicaca^t Ml. Sorata
21.490

Mis. of Brazil
•AN iBk^_ — — *^^*- ATLANTIC OCEAS

S AMERICA

Greenwich 0° Meridian"!

Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Globe

Vertical Scale Exaggerated 260 Times

PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

Greenwich 0° Meridian

Hardanger Bering-

Field itic S«« Ural Mts. Etanovoi Mts. . &0

4.000 FATHOMS

T20.000

FEET

0° SEA LEVEt

15' SEA LEVEL

"Greenwich 0° Meridian

Along Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Globe

Horizontal Scalo 1:150,000,000

PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA

8

OIK COUNTRY AMi ITS RESOURCES

Mungo Park made his journeys in
the basin of the Niger River (lT'.i.".-
1806). During the next forty years,
a few explorers crossed the Sahara

and studied the western and central
Sudan: and finally I>r. Livingstone
gave thirty years of his life to many
journeys of exploration in south
central Africa. Be did not live to
see the great effect of his work; but
soon after his deatli ilsT.'Si the
greatest exploratory movement ever
seen began in Africa. Scores of ex-
peditions carried on held studies that
finally extended over nearly all of
Africa south of the Sahara : and sev-
en European nations Great Britain,
France. Belgium, Germany, Italy,
Spain and Portugal — were finally in
possession of the whole of Africa
excepting Abyssinia and Liberia.
Intensive studies of the various Col-
onies began in the last years of the
19th century and continued till the
war of 1914, when the entire work
of development practically ceased.
Africa, the last continent to be
largely explored, has thus made far
greater progress, in the short period
of a generation, than any of its sis-
ter continents when they were in the
same low stage of development.

Polar exploration began with the
development of the whaling and
fishing industries and the hunt for
walrus, seal. etc.. in the cold regions.
Nearly hs.immi Greenland whales
were killed in Spitzbergen waters
in a little over a century, beginning
in 1G70. The search for the North-
west Passage to Asia also led into

the Antic as. for example, Davis's
voyage up Baffin Bay. Then the
(piest for the North Pole engaged
expeditions for many years; and
finally, not a few parties were
specially equipped to seek for facts
about polar phenomena. Thus many
polar lands have been discovered,
depths of the polar seas have been
ascertained in wide areas, the Arctic
natives have been studied and the
art of living and traveling in the
frigid /.ones has been far advanced.
The Investigation of the position of

the north and south magnetic poles
appears to show that they are not
lixed points but move in areas of
considerable extent. The attainment
of the geographical North Pole was
made by Peary on April 6. 1909;
and of the South Pole by Amund-
sen on December 14. 1911. and by
Scott on January Is. 1912.

The most notable discovery in
many years is the fact that a high
continent surrounds the Smith Pole.
The area of the land surface is ap-
proximately 5,460,000 square miles.
or nearly one and a half times the

Copyright l>y Harris A Owing

REAR ADMIRAL PEARY. DISCOVERER
0E THE NORTH POLE

size of Europe. It is computed that
Its mean height is 6,500 feet, or
nearlj seven times the mean eleva-
tion of Europe.

The greal world sea has been so
well explored that probably few isl-
ands have escaped attention except,

it may be, in the polar areas

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

11

THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY

Date

b. c.

1400-1250

? 1350

1000

750

700
600
500

500

500

470

330

330
339-323

290

218

about 120

61 58

since 30

20
15

A. D.

84

150
518-21
671-95

861

865

876

985
? 1000

1154

about 1200
1253

1271-95

1290
1325-52

1327
1415-GO

1419-20

1442
? 1460
1474

1485
1487

1492-98
1497-98

1498

Explorer and Nationality

Egyptians

Greeks

Phoenicians

Greeks

Samians

Phoenicians

Himilco (Carthag.) ....

Anaximander (of Mil- /

etus) \

Hecataeus (of Miletus)..

Hanno (Carthag.)

Pytheas of Massilia. . . .
Nearchus (Macedon.). .
Alexander the Great. • . .

Egyptians

Carthaginian

Eudoxus of Cyzicus.

Romans

Romans

Strabo (Greek)

Romans

Romans

Claudius Ptolemy

(Egypt.) (

Hoei-sing (Chinese)

1-tsing (Chinese)

Norsemen

Naddod (Norse)

Gunnbjorn (Norse) ....

Erik the Red (Norse) . .

Lyef Eiikson (son of 1

Erik the Red) /

Edrisi (Sicily)

Arabs

Ruysbroek

Marco Polo (Venet.) . .

Genoese

Ibn Batuta (Arab.) . . .

Sir John Mandeville I

(Eng.) /

Prince Henry (Port.)..

J. Gonzales and Mar-
tin Vaz (Port.) ....
Nuno Tristao (Port.)
Ointra and Costa (Port. )
Toscanelli (Ital.) ....

Diego Cam (Port.). .
Bartholomew Diaz

(Port.) I

Columbus (( ten. > . . . .
John ('abut (Anglo-

Ven.)

Vasco da Gama (Port . i

Discovery or Exploration

Invasions of Habesh, Arabia. Phoenicia, Syria.

Argonautic expedition to Colchis.

Voyages to Ophir, Gades, Britain.

Extension of Colonies in the Mediterranean and

Pontus Euxinus.
Spain (Tartessus) discovered for the Greeks.
Circumnavigation of Africa by order of Necho.
Atlantic coasts of Europe. Sargasso Sea. Said

to have visited Britain.

Makes the first maps.
Writes the first geography.
West Africa as far as Cape Palmas.
? Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia.
Sails from the Indus to Red Sea.
Expedition to Iran, Turan, and India.
Navigate the East coast of Africa.
Hannibal crosses the Alps.
Attempts circumnavigation of Africa.
Julius Ca?sar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain.
Extension of geographical knowledge and com-
merce as far as Central Asia.

Describes Roman Empire and first mentioned

Thule and Ireland.
Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance;

Drusus, the Brenner Pass.
Agricola circumnavigates Britain.

Constructs his Geography and Atlas.

Visits Pamirs and Punjab.

Visits Java, Sumatra, and India.

Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded.

I discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monk's about
795.

Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red
(983).

Colonizes Greenland.

Discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Sco-
tia (Markland), and coast of New England
(Vinland) [?].

Geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geog-
raphy.

Trading merchants discover Siberia.

Reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the
Mongol Empire.

Travels in Central Asia, China, India, Persia.

Canaries, Azores, etc.

Travels through the whole Mohammedan World,
N. Africa, E. Africa, S. Russia, Arabia, India
and China.

? Travels in India.

Gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of dis-
covery.

Pono Santo and Madeira discovered.

Cape Verde, etc.

Coast of Guinea reached.

Sends Columbus his map showing the western

route to Cathay (China).
Mouth of the Congo reached.

Hounds Cape of Good Hope

America, West Indies. Trinidad Cuba, etc.

Sails along E. coast of America from Labrador as

far as Florida.
Route to India by ('ape of Good Hope,

TASMANIA STRAITS BRITISH

SETTLEMENTS HONDURAS

JAMAICA
GAMBIA ASHANTI

BRITISH FIJI ISLANDS SOLOMON BRITISH SIERRA LEONE GOLD

NEW GUINEA ISLANDS NORTH BORNEC COAST

Great Britain and its Possessions.

UNITED STATES

PHILIPPINE IS.

ALASKA O* Hawaiian I;

DUTCH

4

HOLLAND

DUTCH GUIANA

i

DUTCH EAST INDIES

FRENCH

WEST INDIES

PORTUGUESE

I

PORTUGAL

JGl

INK

PORTUGUESE
GUINEA

^j^ Azores TIM<>R

^■fl ^^^ Madeira ^H

ANGOLA LAND

GOA Cape Verde Is.

PORTUGUESE
EAST AFR1C-.

GERMAN POSSESSIONS
Prior to the Great War

>£

>

GERMANY KAISER WILHELM

LAND

T

GERMAN
S W. AFRICA

IK

GERMAN
EAST AFRICA

TOGO LAND

Samoa Is. -S1

KIAO-CHAU

*h KD

CAMEROONS

NEW CALEDONIA

4L6 K *J

W^^_ FRENCH *^m

^^^ SOMALILAND i BY

FR. 1NDO-CHINA FR. GUIANA MADAGASCAR

Other Countries and their Possessions.

14

01 k COtJNTRT and ns RESOURCES

TIIK PROGRESS OB DISCOVER! Continued

I >ate

1499

1500

1500

1502
1512

151 3
1513

1516

1517

1519-21

1519-21

1534

1535

1535-42

1539

about 1540
1541

1542
1542

1542

1553

1576

1577-SO

1587

1594-97

L595

I i,i if.
1606

Kills

1610

11.11 17
L616
1616

1616

11. IS

L642
1643
1645

1660

1673

17L'.-» 13
L728aud'41

1764-66

Explorer and Nationality

Amerigo Vespucci (Ital. I

Pinzon, V. Y. (Span.)- •

•laspar Corte Real \

(Port.) /

Alvarez Cabral (Port.).

Columbus (Gen.)

Ponce df I. run (Span.

Portuguese

Balboa (Span, i

De Solis (Span.)

Sebastian Cabot (Eng.)

Corte/. Span. I

Magellan span, i

Pizarro (Span.}

Diego d'AlmagrotSpan.
Jacques Cartier (Fr. ).

Francesco de Ulloa
(Span.)

French

Pizarro and Orellana I
(Span.) ;

Antonio de Mota

Kuy Lopez de Villa- 1
lobos (Span.) /

Pinto (Port.)

SirH.Wlll0ugb.b3 Eng
Frobisher (Eng.) ....
sir I . Drake (Eng.) . .

J. Davis (Eng.)

Barents I Dm.)

Mendafia span
Quiroa I span

Torres 1 span. 1

< liamplain t French) .
H. Eudson i
Spilbergen I Dm.

\v. Baffin 1 Eng l

LeMaire and Schou- \

ten I Dui

1 mi, Hartog 1 Dm -
<;. Thompson (Eng.

merchant. 1

Abel Tasman 1 Dut.) .

Vries < Dm. 1

Deshnev (< iossacb 1 ,

French

Marquette and Joliel

Fi

Russians

Bering iDan.i ami

Tishirikov ilius.i, .

Byron (Eng.)

Discovery or Exploration

Claimed to have discovered Venezuela (which
Columbus had already seen from the island of
Trinidad). His testimony as to his three al-
leged voyages is regarded as untrustworthy.

Discovered month of R. Amazon and Cape St.

Roque.
Reaches entrance of Hudson strait, called by him

strait of Anian. Rediscovered Greenland.
Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being

S. part of Bahia Stat.
Central America on his fourth voyage.
Florida.
Reach the Moluccas.

< losses I st hums of Panama and discovers Pacific

1 icean.

Reaches La Plata.

Hudson Strait.

( 'onqliest of Mexico.

First 10 circumnavigate the globe. Passes
through the strait of Magellan, crosses the
Pacific, and discovers the Philippines.

Completes the Conquest of Peru.
Conquers Chili.

Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hoche-
laga (Montreal).

Explores Gulf of California.
Continent of Australia seen by French sailors.
Amazon River.
First reaches .Japan.

Discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of
Philippine Islands for Spain.

V isii s Japan.

\o\ aya Zemlia.

Labrador and Baffin Land.

Second circumnavigation of the globe, and first
saw Cape Horn. Explored W. coast of N.
America nearly as far as Vancouver Archi-
pelago.

I >a\ is Strait.

Spit/.bergen. Bear Islands, etc.

I )jsc(i\ ers Marquesas islands.

Tahiti (Sagittaria) and other south Sea Islands.

Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia.

I >isCO\ ers Lake < >ntario.

Hudson Bay and discoveries in N. America.

< !ircumna\ igal ion of the globe.
Enters Baffin Bay.

Round Cape Horn.

West coast of Australia.

Sails up Gambia.

Van Diemen's Pan. I Tasmania) and New Zealand.

Explores E. coast Japan, Saghalien, ami K mile Is.

Rounds Last Cape or Asia fiom the Kolyma to the

Anadyr.
Lake region of tin- 9t. Lawrence discovered.

Exploration of the Mississippi from the north.
Explorat ion of the coasts of Siberia.
Bering strait ami the \\\". coast of America,
Circumna\ igation of the globe.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

15

THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY — Continued

Date

Explorer and Nationality

Discovery or Exploration

176S-79

1770
1770
1785-SS
1789
1792

1795-1806
1799-1858

1801-1804
1803-6

1805-9
1807-8

1S19

1819

1825

1819
1819

1819-20
1821
1823
1823

1823
1825-26
1827-8

1829

1830-32
1830
1831
1832

1833-35
1835

1837
1837-40

IS39
1839-40

1839-40

1840

1841
1841-73
1844-48

1845

1848

1849-55

1850
1852-4,1861

1855-59
1863-65

1858

1858

Capt. Cook (Eng.) .

James Bruce (Scot.) . .
Liakhov (Russian)
La Perouse (French) . .
A. Mackenzie (Scot.)..
Vancouver (Eng.) . . . .

Mungo Park (Scot.) .
Alex, von Humboldt 1

(Ger.) J

Flinders (Eng.)

Krusenstern (Rus.)

Salt (Eng.)

Klaproth (Ger.)

Sir E. Parry (Eng.). . .

Sir J. Franklin

Richardson and Back

(Eng.)

Long (U. S.)

Wm. Smith (Eng.)....

Bellingshausen

Capt. King

Wrangel (Rus.)

Denham and Clap-

perton (Eng.)

James Weddell (Brit.).
A. G. Laing (Scot.) . . .
Rene Caillie (French) .

Sturt (Eng.)

Biscoe (Eng.) .

Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.)
Laird and Oldfield \

(Scot.) J

Sir G. Back (Eng.) . .
Sir M. R. Schomburgk

(Ger.)

Wood (Eng.)

John d'Urville (French)

J. Balleny (Eng.)

Eyre (Eng.)

Lieut. Charles Wilkes

(U. S.)

Triimmer

Sir James C. Ross(Eng.)
D. Livingstone (Scot.).
Leichhardt (Ger.) ....

Sir. Tohn Franklin (Eng.)
Rebmannand Krapf ( Ger
Richardson and Barth

(Eng.-Ger.)

Sir R. M'Clure (Irish).
Sir C. R. Markham

(Eng.)

Du Chaillu (French) .
Sir R. Burton (Scot.)..
Speke and Grant (Brit.)

Voyages round the world. Hydrographical sur-
veys of the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands,
E. coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zea-
land, Antarctic Ocean, N.W. coast of America,
etc.

Sources of the Blue Nile.

Discovers New Siberian Islands.

North of Japan. Saghalien, etc.

Exploration of the Mackenzie River.

Vancouver Island circumnavigated. Discovered
by Perez, 1774. Exploration of NW. coast of
America.

Journeys and explorations in the Niger district.

Explorations in South America and publication
of " Kosmos."

Southern coasts of Australia.

Surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsch,
Saghalien, etc.

Visit to Abyssinia.

Exploration of the Caucasus.

Parry Archipelago.

Coppermine and .Mackenzie Rivers explored.

Exploration of Rocky Mountains.
South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Vis-
ited by Weddell in 1822.
Discovered new Antarctic Islands.
Explorations in Western Australia.
Discovers Wrangel Island.

Lake Chad.

Explored Weddell Sea.

Reached Timbuktu from Tripoli.

Journey from Kakundi to Timbuktu and Mo-
rocco.

Descends the Murrumbidgee and discovers the
Murray River.

Enderby Land and Graham Land.

Royal Geographical Society founded in London.

Magnetic North Pole.

Exploration of the Niger and Benue.
Great Fish River, Canada.
Explorations in Guiana.
Discovered a source of the Oxus.
Adelie Land. Reached 66° 30' S. lat.
Balleny Islands, 66° 44' S. lat.
Discovers Lake Torrens, S. Australia, and in 184 l
journeys from Adelaide to King George's Sound.

Discovery of the Antarctic Continent.
Remains of ancient Nineveh.

Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror.
Thirty years' travel in Central South Africa.
Crosses Australia, Moreton Bay to Port Essin.'?-

ton.
Sails on his last vbyage never to return.
Mt. Kilima Njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia.

Western Sudan and Sahara.
Northwest Passage.
Explorations in Peru.

Basin of Ogowe River, W. Africa.
Lake Tanganyika.
Victoria Nyaqza,

10

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES
THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY— Continued

Date

Explorer and Nationality

Discovery or Exploration

I860

1861

1862

1862-63

1864

1864-66

1867-72

l.sti.x- 7 1

1869

1870-1886
1872

1872-76

1872-76

1873
1874-75

1876
1876-90

1876

1877-78

1878-79
1878-89

1878-85

1878-92

1879

1879
1881-82

ISM s.-,

1 SS5

1885

ISSti |<)( Ml

1887

1887

L888 L900

1890-02

is'. 12
1893 96

1897
1893 97
L895-96
1896 98

1897

1897
1898 99

1899 i'» "I

1899 L903

1895 r.'i ii i

Sir S. Baker (Eng.).

Burke and Wills

M'Douali Stuart (Scot.
W. G. Palgrave I Eng. |
A. E. Nordenskiold

Swedish i

G. Rohlfs «ier. )

Richthofen < ler.) . . . .
G. Schweinfurth i< ler.

(i. Xachtigal (Ger.). • •

Prejevalsky (Rus.)
Payer and Weyprecht

(Austrian)

"Challenger" Expedi-
tion (Brit.)

Ernest Giles

\\ arburton (Irish). . . .

Lieut. Cameron (Eng.)

De Breeze (French). . .

H. M. Stanley (Eng.).

Sir Geo. Xares and
A. H. Markham
(Eng.)

Doughtv and Blunt
(Brit.)

Nordenskjold (Swed. i

Thomson (Scot.)

Major Serpa Pinto

(Port.)

Emin Pasha (Ger.) . . .

Moustier and Zweifel

(Swiss)

Lieut. Schwatka (U. S.

Leigh Smith

Greely (U. S

Wissmann (Ger.)

Junker iRus.-< ier. ) . . .
Peary (l\ S.)

Capt. Younghusband

(Eng.)

Hans Meyer i( ier.

I'. I'otireati (French
Col. P. F. Mantel]

(French)

Baron Toll (Russ.)

Nansen I Norw.)

Jackson Scot.)
Sven lb-din 9wed.
Pr. Henri d < >i leans
( !ap1 . Marchand .

\ndree (Swed.) . .

I) ( larnegie

De < Serlacne i Belgian

Donaldson Smith

(U. S.)

Capt. Otto s\ erdrup

Swedish)

Major < ribbons

Explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Xvanza.
1864.

Crossed Australia.

< Jrossed Australia.

Journeys in Central and Eastern Arabia.

Spitzbergen.

Journeys in W. Sudan by Ghadames, Murzuk,

and Wadai to R. Niger.
Extensive travel and exploration in China.
Exploration of the Jur. Niam-Xiam, and Mon-

buttu countries in Africa.
Explorations in Lake Chad region and Central

Sudan States.
Journeys in Mongolia. Tibet, etc.

Discovered Franz Josef Land.

Explores the depths of the oceans.

Traverses Northwest Australia.

Crosses Western Australia from East to West

< losses Equatorial Africa.

Explorations in the Ogowe* and Gabun region.
Congo Basin ; Mt. Ruwenzori; Forests on the Aru-
wimi, etc.

Grant Land. Penetrated as far X. as S3° 20'.

Explorations in Northern Arabia.

Northeast passage

Journeys through Masai Land. British South
Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc.

Twice crosses Africa.

Travels and Surveys in Equatorial Africa. Dis-
covery of Semliki River, etc.

Sources of the Xiger.
Recovered 1'ranklin relics.
Explored S. coast of Fran/. Josef Land,
(irinnell Land and X\V. coast of Greenland.
Across Africa from West coast. Congo Basin.
Welle-Mobangi, etc.

Six expeditions of exploration and North Pole at-
tained on April 6, 1909.

Travels from Pekin to Kashmir.
Exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro.
Explorations in the Sahara.

Researches in the Sudan and Sahara.

Exploral ions in t he Lena R.

11\ iolenland. etc.: reached his "Farthest North"

in lat. 86 13' 6" N.
Surveys and explorations in Fran/. Josef Land.
Explorations in North Central Asia.
Travels in Tonkin and ( hina.
Travels from I pper Mobangi to Fashoda.

A I tempt tO Cross Over the North Pole in a balloon,

w ii h fatal results.
Crosses Western Australia from S. to N.
"Belgica,' firs! ship to winter within Antarctic

circle.

Explorations in Vbyssinia and Brit. E. Vfrica.
Found new islands W. of Parry Islands.
Explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY

17

THE PROGRESS OF I)IS( '( (VERY- Continued

Date

Explorer and Nationality

Discovery or Exploration

1900

1900

1900-02

1902-04

1901-04

1902-03

1903-04

1904 and

1908-10

1906

1906-08
1908-09
1910-11
1910-12

1911-12

1913

1906-07
1909-12

1912

1913

1913

1913-14

1915

Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.)
Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.)
Sven Hedin (Swed.).. . .
Anglo-Fr. and Anglo- 1

Ger. Comms J

Com. R. P. Scott (Brit.)

Prof. E. von Drygal- \

ski (Ger.) J

Dr. W. S. Bruce (Brit.).
Dr. J. B. Charcot j

\ (French)

Duke of the Abruzzi

(Ital.)

Sven Hedin (Swedish)
Lieut. Shackleton (Brit.)

Amundsen (Nor.)

Capt. R. F. Scott(Brit.)

Filchner (Ger.)

Stefansson (Can.)

Mylius Erichsen

Einar Mikkelsen

Knud Rasmussen

J. P. Koch

Capt. B. A. Vilkitski.. .

Capt. Vilkitski

Sir Ernest Shackleton . .

Reached lat. 78° 50' S. via "Victoria Land.
Reached lat. 86° 33' N. via Franz Josef Land.
Explorations in Tibet.

Surveys and discoveries in Bornu and Kamerun.
Explorations in Ross Sea and interior of Antarctic
Continent.

Discovered Gaussberg on Antarctic Continent.
Discovery of Coats Land in Weddell Sea.
Explorations along Graham Land Coast and W.
of it.

First ascent of Mt. Ruwenzori.

Tibet. Discovered main source of Brahmaputra.

Sledge journey towards the South Pole.

Reached South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911.

Reached South Pole, Jan. 18, 1912 and perished
on return journey.

Discovered Prince Regent Leopold Land, Jan.,
1912, on Antarctic Continent, Weddell Sea.

Discovered new land N. W. of Prince Patrick
Island, Parry .'slands.

Completed maps of Greenland Coasts.

Explorations in Greenland Sea and East Green-
land.

Crossed North Greenland.

Crossed Middle Greenland.

Discovered Nicholas II Land in the Arctic.

Made the second Northeast Passage.

Discovered Caird Coast of the Antarctic Con-
tinent.

Copyright United Newspapers; Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.
LOOKING DOWN ON THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU

Copyrighl BdwiD Leviek

"IT SHINES FOR ALL"

How the Statue of Liberty appears to the Alien. (Thia is aol m photograph of the

liyht itself, but a picture of the sun, taken at 6 r. M., from i\ Bteamahip.)

CHAPTER II.

POPULATION

THE Thirteenth Census of the
United States was taken by
the Bureau of the Census as
of April 15, 1910. The total area
of enumeration included the United
States, the territories of Alaska and
Hawaii and Porto Rico. The enu-
meration also included persons sta-
tioned abroad in the military and
naval service of the Government.

the outlying possessions of the Unit
ed States. Including the population
of the Philippines and other posses-
sions, the total population living
under the American flag is approxi-
mately as given below.

It has been estimated by the
United States Census Bureau that
the population of the United States
and possessions on July 1, 1914,

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES

Territory Enumerated: 1910

United States (with outlying possessions)

United States, exclusive of outlying possessions
Outlying possessions

Alaska

Hawaii

Porto Rico

Military and naval service abroad

Gross area

(land and

water) in

square miles

3,627,557

3,026, 7S9
600,768

5<>O.SN-t
6,449
3,435

Population

93,402,151

91,972,266
1,429,885

64,356

191,90 >

1,118,012

55.608

The population returned for the
total area of enumeration was 93,-
402.151, an increase, from 1900 to
1910, of 20.9 per cent for the total
area of enumeration and "Jl per cent
for the United States, exclusive of
outlying possessions.

It should be noted that the area
of enumeration does not cover all

was 109,021,992, and that the popu-
lation of the United States on July
1, 1915, was 100,399,318.

At the close of the First Census,
in l?.t(). the United States comprised
substantially the territory between
the Atlantic Ocean and the Missis-

TOTAL POPULATION UNDEK THE AMEKICAN FLAG, 1910

Population of the United States and possessions

Enumerated at the census of 1910

Philippine Islands, 1903

Guam, estimated

Samoa, estimated

Panama Canal Zone, estimated

101.100,100

93

,402,151
,635, 126

!

6 100
50,000

Copyright by M'um & Co., Inc.

OCR COIN TKV AM) ITS RESOURCES

sippi River except Florida, repre-
senting a gross area (land and wa-
ter surface) of 892,135 square miles.

The United states, with its outlying
possessions, now comprises a gross
area of 3.743,30c. square miles, or
more than four times the area in
1790. The successive accessions of
territory w«re as given below.

DENSITY OF POPULATION

According to the census of 1910,
there were in the United States, on
the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each

Alaska had an average density of
only o.l per square mile; Hawaii.
29.8; and Porto Rico, 325.5, or

greater than that of any State of
the United States except Rhode
Island. Massachusetts and New
Jersey.

( ENTEB OF POPULATION

The center of population is often
understood to be the point of inter-
section of a north and south line
which divides the population equal-
ly, with an east and west line which

Accession

Gross area

in square

miles

Accession

< rross area

in square

miles

3.026,789

. Hitlving possessions

Alaska, 1867

Philippine Islands, 1899

Porto Rico 1899

716,517

Area of V. S. in 1790*

Florida. 1819. .

892,135

827,987
58,666

13,435
389.166
286,541
529,189

29,670

590.884

6,449

115,026

Territory gained through treaty

with Spain, 1819

Texas 1845

8,435

Guam, 1899

Samoa, 1900

210
77

Oregon. 1846. . . .

Panama Canal Zone, 1904

436

Mexican Cession, 1848

Gadsden Purchase, 1853

^Includes the drainage basin of the Red River of the North, not a part of any acquisi-
tion, but previously considered a part of the Louisiana Purchase.

square mile of land area. The rela-
tive density of population of each
State of the United States in 1910
is best exhibited by the map on
page L'2.

Aside from the District of Colum-
bia there were ten States in which
there was in 1910 a population per
square mile of more than ion. as
follows: Rhode Island. 508.5 inhabi-
tants per square mile; Massachu-
setts, 418.8; New Jersey, .'!.".7.7;
Connecticut, 231.3; New York.
101.2; Pennsylvania. 171.0; Mary-
land, i:in.::: Ohio. U7.0; Delaware,
103.0; Illinois, 100.6. There were
10 States which had. on the average,
less than 18 inhabitants to the
Square mile. Nevada, with 0.7 per-
son per square mile, or 7 persons
to 10 square miles, had the lowest
density.

Among tin' outlying possessions

likewise divides it equally. This

point of intersection is, in a certain
sense, a center of population: it is,
however, designated by the Rureau
of the Census as the median point
to distinguish it from the point tech-
nically denned as the center.

The character of these two points
may be made clear through a physi-
cal analogy. If the surface of the
United States be considered as a
rigid plane without weight capable
of sustaining the population distri-
buted thereon, individuals being as
sumed to be of equal weight, and
each, therefore, to exert a pressure
on any supporting pivotal point di-
rectly proportional to his distance
from the point, the pivotal point on
which the plane balances would, of
course, be it- center of gravity : and
this is the point referred to by the
term "center of population." In de-

POPULATION

21

COMPARATIVE AREA OF THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES

UNITED STATES, ORIGINAL AREA AND ACQUISITIONS OF TERRITORY,

1790 TO 1910

22

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE, BY STATES

termining the median point, distance
is qoI taken into account, and the
location of the units of population
Is considered only in relation to the
Intersecting median lines — as being
north <>r south of the median paral-
lel and east and west of the median
meridian. Extensive changes in the
geographic distribution of the popu-
lation may take place without affect-
ing the median point, whereas the
center of population responds In the
slightest population change in any
section "f the country.

I I.NTEK OF POPULATION

At the time of the First Census,
the center of population was 23
miles east of Baltimore, Maryland,
since wlii h time it has moved stead-
ily westward. In 1800 j, NVas IS

miles west of Baltimore; in L810,
10 miles northwest by west from
Washington, I ». C; in 1820, it; miles

north of \v Istock, Va.; in L830,

p.t miles west-southwest of m •.•-

field, AY. Va. : in 1840, 16 miles south
of Clarksburg, W. Va.; in 1850, 23
miles southwest <>f Parkersburg, W.
Va. : in I860, 20 miles south of ciiil-
licothc. ( ». ; in 1870, Is miles east

by north of Cincinnati, O. : in 1880,
8 miles west by south of Cincinnati,
O. ; in 1890, 20 miles east of Colum-
bus, Ind.J in 1900, (i miles southeast
of Columbus, Ind., and finally, in
1910, in the city of Bloomington,
Ind. During the 120 years between
the First and Thirteenth Census, the
center of population has moved over
550 miles westward, or in other
words, from west latitude 76 degrees
11 minutes 12 seconds to west lati-
tude s6 degrees 'A2 minutes 20 sec-
onds.

MEDIAN POINT

As in the case of the center of
population, the median point has also
oeen moving westward, but not quite
so rapidly. The exact location of
the median point in L880 was 16
miles nearly due west of Spring-
field, < >. ; in 1890, 5 miles southwest
of Greenville, <>. ; in 1900, in Spar-
tanburg, Ind.. and finally, in 1910,
'A miles south of Winchester, Ind.

l RB \N \Mi RTJBAl rol'l l \TION

The Census Bureau classifies as
urban population that residing in

Cities and other incorporated places
of 2,500 Inhabitants or more, includ-

24

OUR COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

ing New England towns of that
size. All other population is con-
sidered as rural.

In 1880, of a total population in
the United States of 50,155,783,
there were in municipalities 14,772,-
438, or 29.5 per cent of the popu-
lation. In 1890, this element had
grown to 22.72U.22."'., or 36.1 per cent
of the total population; in 1900, it
was 30,797,185, or 40.5 per cent ; and
in 1910, 42,623,383, or 46.3 per cent
of the total population of the United
Slates.

Prom 1900 to 1910 the rate of in-
crease for the population of urban
areas was over three times that for
the population living in rural ter-
ritory, the rates of increase being
34.8 and 11.2 per cent respectively.

There were 14 States in 1910 in
which more than half the population
was living in territory classed as
urban. The greatest per cent urban
in any State was Rhode Island,
which had 96.7 per cent, while North
Dakota, with 11 per cent, had the
smallest proportion of its people
in urban communities.

There was in every State between
1900 and 1910 an increase in urban

population, but in six States — New
Hampshire. Vermont, Ohio, Indiana,
Iowa and Missouri — there was a de-
crease in rural population. In all
but two States — Montana and Wyo-
ming— the urban population in-
creased faster than the rural popu-
lation, and generally at a much more
rapid rate.

COLOR OR RACE, NATIVITY AND
PARENTAGE

Of the population ot the United

States in 1910, 81,731,957. or ss.'.i
per cent, were whites; i».si:7.763, or
10.7 per cent, were negroes; and
412,546, or four-tenths of one per
cent, were other colored races, in-
cluding Indians. Chinese. Japanese.
Hindus, Koreans, and others.

Of the total population. 7s,4~>6,380.
or 85.3 per cent, were native and
13,515,886, or 14.7 per cent, foreign
born, the latter consisting chiefly
of whites.

The native white population num-
bered 6S.3s6.41 2. and constituted
83.7 per cent of the white popula-
tion and 74.4 per cent of the total
population of the country. The 13,-
345,545 foreign-born whites consti-

NUMBER OF FAMILIES PER SQUARE MILE

26

OVR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

tuted 1 (;.."'» per cent of the white
population and 14.5 per cent of the
total population.

Native whites of native paren-
tage in 1910 numbered 49,488,575,
constituting 60.5 per cent of the
white population and 53.8 per cent
of the total population. Native
whites of foreign parentage formed
15.8 per cent of the white popula-
tion and those of mixed parentage
7.:; per cent, the corresponding per-
centages based on the total popula-
tion being 11 and i<~>, respectively.

crease of the white population. The
native white population increased
20.8 per cent and the foreign-born
white 30.7 per cent. The increase
of Degrees and Indians, since their
cumbers is only slightly affected by
immigration, or emigration, is essen-
tially a natural increase.

BLACK AND MULATTO POPULATION

Of the 9,827,763 negroes enumer-
ated in L910, 7.777.077 were returned
as black and 2,050,686 as mulatto,
or 20.9 per cent. In 1850 the per-

I I Lro thin 1 per cenl,
m 110 5 pcrctD .
V777* b to 12J per Cent.

ESS 121 t<>25 J- r cent.

(ffiB 25 tO 17) IKTCCtlt.

HZ 37) to 40 per cent.

■D) SO pcf txnt and

Tb« heavy line* {—) show Rfographic divisions.

PER CENT OF NEGROES IN TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES

Of the total increase of 15,977,691
in the population of the country be-
tween 1900 and 1910, the whites con-
tributed 14,922,761, the negroes 993,-
769, and other races 61,161. The
Increase in the native population
was 12,803,081, and thai in the for-
eign born, 3,17 1,610, or aboul one-
fifth of the lotal increase.

The percentage of increase for the

whites. •_"_'.::. was a little less than

twice as high as that for the negroes,

11.2. This difference is partly due.
however, to the direct or indirect

effect of Immigration upon the in

centage of mulattoes was 11. 2. it
had advanced but little in is7o, be-
ing only 12 per cent, hut since 1870
the proportion of mulattoes in the
total negro population appears to
have increased materially, reaching
15.2 per cent in 1890, and. as given
above. 20.9 per cent in 1910.

INDIAN, (MINIM \Mi .1 W \MSK
POP1 I \ I lo\

Since is'.io. the firs! census to in-
clude an enumeration of Indians in
Indian territory and on Indian reser-
vations, the Indian population has

I'S

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES

increased slightly, being 248,253 in
1890 and 265,683 in 1910. During
the same period the Chinese popu-
lation decreased from 107,488 in
1890 to 71,531 in 1910, while the
Japanese population increased from
2,039 in 1890 to 72,157 in 1910. There
were also enumerated in 1910 other
non-white races, consisting, for the
greater part, of Hindus and Kore-
ans, to the number of 3.175.

PRINCIPAL CITIKS

It may he of interest to consider
the population of principal cities
with respect to color, nativity and
parentage. In only fourteen of the
fifty cities having a population of
over 100,000 did native whites of
native parentage constitute as much
as one-half of the total population.
I'lie proportion exceeded three fifths
in only four cities. Indianapolis,
<;t.r> per cent: Columbus, 04.4 per
cent; Dayton, 62 per cent, and Kan-
sas City, 61.9 per cent. On the other
hand, in twenty-two of the cities of
this class, less than one-third of the
population were native whites of
oative parentage, over two-thirds in
all imt one of these cities consisting

of foreign-born whites and their
children. In Fall River only 13.3
per cent of the population were
native whites of native parentage.
In 10 cities of 100,000 inhabitants,
or over, the population was more
than one-third foreign-horn white,
namely. Fall River, 42.0 per cent:
Lowell, 40.9 per cent : New York,
4(1.4 per cent: Paterson. ."><U per
cent: Boston, 35.9 per cent; Chi-
cago, 35.7 per cent : Bridgeport, 35.5
per cent: Cleveland. .".4.'.> per cent:
Providence. 34 per cent: and De-
troit. 33.6 ]ter cent.

The proportion of foreign-born

whites was low in all of the smith
ern cities. Among the northern
cities it was lowest in Indianapolis
(8.5 per cent) and Columbus (9 per
cent). In many of the fifty cities
having a population of over 100,000
the proportion of native whites of
foreign or mixed parentage was
nearly the same as the proportion
of foreign-horn whites. The native
whites of foreign or mixed parentage
were relatively most numerous in
Milwaukee (48.8 per cent) and Fall
River (43.7 per cent ).

During the decade 1900-1910 the

POPULATION

2\)

POPULATION OF CITIES

OF THE

UNITED STATES

Census of 1910

Cities of over 100,000 population

Albany, N. Y 100,253

Atlanta, Ga 154,839

Baltimore, Md 558,485

Birmingham, Ala... 132,685

Boston, Mass 670,585

Bridgeport, Conn 102,054

Buffalo, N. Y 423,715

Cambridge, Mass.... 104,839

Chicago, 111 2,185,283

Cincinnati, Ohio 364,463

Cleveland, Ohio 560,663

Columbus, Ohio 181,548

Davton, Ohio 116,577

Denver, Colo 213,381

Detroit, Mich 465,766

Fall River, Mass. . . . 119,295

Grand Rapids, Mich. 112,571

Indianapolis, Ind.... 233,650

Jersey City, N. J... 267,779

Kansas City, Mo.... 248,381

Los Angeles, Cal.... 319,198

Louisville, Ky 223,928

Lowell, Mass 106,294

Memphis, Tenn 131,105

Milwaukee, Wis 373,857

Minneapolis, Minn.. 301,408

Nashville, Tenn 110,364

Newark, N. J 347,469

New Haven, Conn... 133,605

New Orleans, La.... 339,075
New York, N. Y.. ..4,766,883

Oakland, Cal 150,174

Omaha, Neb 124,096

Paterson, N. J 125,600

Philadelphia, Pa.. ..1,549,008

Pittsburgh, Pa 533,905

Portland, Ore 207,214

Providence, R. I.... 224,326

Richmond, Va 127,628

Rochester, N. Y 218,149

St. Louis, Mo 687,029

St. Paul, Minn 214,744

San Francisco, Cal.. 416,912

Scranton, Pa 129,867

Seattle, Wash 237,194

Spokane, Wash 104,402

Syracuse, N. Y 137,249

Toledo, Ohio 168,497

Washington, D. C... 331,069

Worcester, Mass.... 145,986

Cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 population

Akron, Ohio 69,067

Allentown. Pa 51,913

Altoona, Pa 52,127

Amsterdam, N. Y 31,267

Atlantic City, N. J... 46,150

Auburn, N. Y 34,668

Augusta, Ga 41,040

Aurora, 111 29,807

Austin, Tex 29,860

Battle Creek, Mich.... 25,267

Bay City, Mich 45.166

Bayonne, N. J 55,545

Berkeley, Cal 40,434

Binghamton, N. Y.... 48,443

Bloomington, III 25,768

Brockton, Mass 56,878

Brookline, Mass *. 27,792

Butte, Mont 39,165

Camden. N. J 94.538

Canton, Ohio 50,217

Cedar Rapids, Iowa... 32,811

Charleston, S. C 58,833

Charlotte, N. C 34,014

Chattanooga, Tenn.... 44,604

Chelsea, Mass 32,452

Chester, Pa 38,537

Chicopee, Mass 25,401

Clinton, Iowa 25,577

Colorado Springs,

Colo 29,078

Columbia, S. C 26,319

Council Bluffs, Iowa.. 29,292

Covington, Ky 53,270

Dallas. Tex 92.104

Danville. Ill 27,871

Pavenport, Iowa 43,028

Decatur, 111 31,140

Des Moines, Iowa 86,368

Dubuque, Iowa 38,494

Duluth, Minn 78,466

Easton, Pa 28,523

East Orange, N. J.... 34,371
East St. Louis, 111.... 58,547

El Paso, Tex 39,279

Elgin, 111 25,976

Elizabeth, N. J 73,409

Elmira, N. Y 37,170

Erie, Pa 66,525

Evansville, Ind 69,647

Everett, Mass 33,484

Fitehburg, Mass 37,826

Flint, Mich 38,550

Fort Wayne, Ind 63,933

Fort Worth, Tex 73,312

Galveston, Tex 36,981

Green Bay, Wis 25,236

Hamilton, Ohio 35,279

Harrisburg, Pa 64,186

Hartford, Conn 98,915

Haverhill, Mass 44,115

Hazleton, Pa 25,452

Hoboken, N. J 70,324

Holyoke, Mass 5i,730

Houston, Tex 78,800

Huntington, W. Va... 31,161

Jackson, Mich 31,*33

Jacksonville, Fla 57,699

Jamestown, N. Y 31,297

Johnstown, Pa 55.482

Joliet, 111 34.670

.Toplin. Mo 32,073

Kalamazoo, Mich 39,437

Kansas City, Kans 82,331

Kingston, N. Y 25,908

Knoxville, Tenn 36,346

La Crosse, Wis 30,417

Lancaster, Pa 47,227

Lansing, Mich 31,229

Lawrence, Mass 85.892

Lewiston, Me 26,247

Lexington, Ky 35,099

Lima. Ohio 30,508

Lincoln, Neb 43.973

Little Rock. Ark 45,941

Lorain, Ohio 28,883

Lynchburg, Va 29,494

Lynn, Mass 89,336

Macon, Ga 40.665

McKeesport, Pa 42,694

Madison, Wis 25,531

Maiden, Mass 44,404

Manchester, N. H 70,063

Meriden, Conn 27,265

Mobile, Ala 51,521

Montgomery, Ala 38.130

Mount Vernon. X. Y. . 30,919

Muskogee, Okla 25,278

Nashua, N. H 26,005

Newark, Ohio 25,404

New Bedford, Mass... 96,652
New Britain, Conn... 43,916

Newburgh, N. Y 27,805

Newcastle, Pa 36,280

Newport, Ky 30,309

Newport, B. 1 27.149

New Rochelle, N. Y... 28.867

Newton, Mass 39,806

Niagara Falls, N. Y.. 30,445

30

OIK ('(il'NTHY AMi ITS RESOURCES

Norfolk, Va 67,452

Norristown, Pa 27,875

Ogden, Utah 25,580

Oklahoma City, Okla.. >". 1 . ir- >."".

Orange, N. .1 29,630

Oshkosh, Wis 33,002

Pasadena, Cal 80,291

Passaic, N. J 54,778

Pawtucket, K. 1 51,622

Peoria, 111 66,950

Perth Amboy, N. J.... 82,121

Pittsfleld, Mass 32,121

Portland, Me 58,571

Portsmouth, Va 33,190

Poughkeepsie, X. Y... 27,936

Pueblo, Colo 44,395

Quincy, 111 36,587

Quincy, Muss 32.0 12

Racine, wis 38,002

Reading, Pa 96,071

Roanoke, Va 34.S74

Rockford, 111 45,401

Sacramento, Cal 44,696

Saginaw, Mich 50,510

St. Joseph, Mo 77,403

Salem, Muss 43,(197

Salt Lake City, Otah. 92.777

s.-ui Antonio, Tex 96,614

San Diego, Cal 39, 57s

San Jose, Cal 28,946

Sa\ aiiuali, 6a 65,064

Schenectady, N. Y.... 72,826

Sheboygan, wis 20.:;:_>s.

Shenandoi a, Pa 25,774

Shreveport, La 28,015

SiouX City, Iowa 17. s2s

Somerrille, Mass 77.230

South Bend, I ml 53,684

South Omaha, Neb.. .. 26,259

Springfield, 111 51,678

Springfield, Mass 88,926

Springfield, Mo 35,201

Springfield, Ohio 46,921

Stamford, Conn 25.13s

Superior, Wis 40,384

Tacoma, Wash 83,743

Tampa, Pla 37,782

Taunton, Mass 34,259

Terre Haute, I ml 58,157

Topeka, Kans 43,684

Trenton. N. ,T 96,815

Troy. N. Y 76,813

Dtica, N. Y 74,419

u aco, Tes 20.425

Waltham, Mass 27,834

Warwick, It. 1 26,629

Waterbury, Conn 73,141

Waterloo, leu a 26,693

Watertown, N. Y 26,730

\\ est Soboken, N. J.. 35,403

Wheeling, W. Va 41,641

Wichita, Kans 52,450

Wilkes-Barre, Pa 07,105

Williamsport, Pa 31,860

Wilmington, Del S7.411

Wilmington, N. C 25,748

Woonsocket, R. 1 3s,12j

Yonkers, N. Y 79,803

York, l'a 44,750

Youngstown, Ohio 79,066

Zanesville, Ohio 28,026

foreign-born white population in
New York City advanced from 1,-
260,918 to 1,927,703, an increase of
666,785, while native whites of na-
tive parentage increased only 183,-
841. In 1910 only 19.3 per rent of
the city's population consisted of
native whites of native parentage.
Of the total population of the United
States approximately one-twentieth
is domiciled in New York City; of
the native whites of native paren-

tage, one-fiftieth; of the native
whites of foreign or mixed paren-
tage, one-tenth; and of the foreign-
horn, one-seventh.

Among the larger cities the pro-
portion of negroes in 1910 was high-
est in Memphis, 40 per cent, followed
by Birmingham, with 3'.t.4 per cent ;
Richmond, 36.6 per cent ; Atlanta.
33.5 per cent ; Nashville, 33.1 pel-
cent; Washington, 28.5 per cent;
New Orleans, 26.3 per cent; Louis-

PR0P0RTI0N OF MALES TO FEMAIES IN THE TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES

: li-

on* COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

villi-, 18.1 per cent; and Baltimore,
L5.2 per cent, in do other city of
over 100,000 inhabitants did the ne-
gro element amounl to one-tenth of
the population. Classified according
to numbers, the following cities re-
turned more than 50,000 negroes in
1910: Washington, 94,446; New
York, 91,709; New Orleans, 89,262;
Baltimore, 84,749; Philadelphia, 84,-
459; Memphis, 52,441; Birmingham,
52,305; and Atlanta, 51,902.

( I. ASM] l( ATION OF POPULATION BY SEX

There were in the United Slates
in 1910, 47,332,277 males and 44,-
639,989 females, or 106 males to each
100 females.

The excess of males in the United
Slates is partly due to extensive im-
migration, a much larger proportion
of the immigrants being males than
females. In the native white popu-
lation of the United States, how-
ever, there is also an exeess of males
over females, the ratio in 1910 being
102.7 males to each 100 females.

POPULATION 21 YEARS OF AGE AND
OVER

Persons 21 years of age and over

have certain special legal rights
with reference to property, the elec-
tive franchise, and other matters.
This class of the population is fur-
ther significant from the social and
economic standpoint, in that it in-
cludes the great majority of bread-
winners and also the great majority
of married men and women. From
the political standpoint particular
interest attaches to statistics regard-
ing males 21 years of age and over,
although in several States women
of that age also now have the right
to vote at all elections.

For the United States, exclusive
of Alaska, Hawaii. Porto Rico, and
other outlying possessions, the total
population 21 years of age and over
in 11)10 was 51,554,905, representing
56.1 per cent of the total popula-
tion of all ages. Of this number,
26,999,151, or 20.4 per cent of the
total population, were males, and
24,555,754 were females.

MALES OF MILITIA AGE

Men from 18 to 44 years of age.

inclusive, are subject to militia duty
under the laws of most States, and

Courtesy Literary Dlgesl

WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE— DISTRIBUTION OF VOTERS
White indicates Suffrage; dotted, limited Suffrage, and black, male Suffrage only.

POPULATION

represent substantially the theoreti-
cal fighting strength of the country
in ease of war. The total number
of males from 18 to 44 years of age
in 1910 was 20,473,684, representing
22.3 per cent of the total population
of the Country and 43.3 per cent of
the total male population.

IMMIGRATION

Immigration into the United
States has experienced a marked
reduction as a result of the Euro-
pean war, dropping from a total of
1,21S,4S0 for the year ended June
30, 1914, to 326,700, and 298,826 for
the years ended June 30, 1915 and
1916, respectively. This falling off
is not of a temporary nature, but
is certain to continue for many
years, even after the close of the
war.

Of the 298,826 immigrant aliens
admitted during the year ended
June 30, 1916, 9.795 had been en-
gaged in the professions. 45,528 were
skilled laborers, 138,737 had been
engaged in miscellaneous occupa-
tions, and 104,766 (including the
women and children) reported no
occupation. Of the 129.765 emigrant
aliens departed, 2,097 had been
engaged in the professions. 13,874
were skilled laborers, 96.405 had
been engaged in miscellaneous occu-
pations and 17.389 (including the
women and children) reported no
occupation.

Eighteen thousand eight hundred
and sixty-seven persons were de-
barred during the year. Of this
number. 10,383 were debarred as
being likely to become p u b 1 i c
charges. 1,153 as having a loathsome
or dangerous contagions disease,
1,657 as of mental defects (other
than idiots, imbeciles and insane)
and 2.0S0 as being contract laborers.
There were 2,906 persons deported
after landing, of which number 1.081
were deported because of the possi-
bility of becoming public charges,
282 for insanity, 360 for bavins en-
tered without inspection, 114 as
criminals and 100 for loathsome or
dangerous diseases.

.*u

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

0C< I PATIOW -

At the Thirteenth Census there

were :;s. Tot;. :::::: persons ten years
of age and over engaged in gainful
occupations in the United states, in-

total population and •">:;. :; per cent
of the population ten years of age
and over. ill the male population
the gainful workers numbered 30,-
091,564, which was 81.3 per cent of

IMMIGRATION INTO THE INITED STATES, 1910-1916

Fears Ended June 30 —

Races

1910

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

1916

African (black)

4,966

.-...-.os
8,462

15,130

1.770
39,562

3.331

4,911
13,012

1,782
53,498
15,736
21,107
71,380
39,135
84,260
38,382
30,780
192,673

2,798

19

22,714

27,302

17,760

61

128,348

7,657
14,199
17.294
27,907
52,037
24,612
32.416

5,837
900

6,3 1 7

1,283

2,24 1

1 , 1 5( i

3.330

6.721
3.091'
9,223

10,222
1,307

18,982
3,91 1

1,400

L3.862

517

57,258

9,779

18,132

66,471

37,021

91,223

40,246

30,312

159,638

4,575

8

17.027

19,996

18,784

12

71,446

7,469

5,31 I

18,721

17,721

45,859

25,625

21,415

8,068

1,153

5, 1 I I

918

2,248

1,111

3.323

6,759
5.222

8, 139

10,657
1,608

24,366
3,155

3,672

10, 935
165
19,689
6,641
18,382
65,3-43
31,566
80,595
33,922
26.1-13

135,830
6,172

33

1 1,078
23,599

22.0(11
3

85,163

9.103

8.329
22,558

21.965

31.601
20,293

25,281

9.070
1,342
5,525

1 .336
2,239

1,132

3. OliO

6,634

9.353
11.091

9,087
2,022

12.199
3,099

1,520
I 1,507

188

55,522

12,756

20.652

80,865

38,644

101,330

37,023

12.53 1

231,613

8,302

64

24.647

30,610
10,954
11
171.365
13,566
13.451
51.172

30,588

38.737

21.293

27,23 1

9,042

1.363

9,210

2.015

2,820

1.171
3.038

8.(17

7.785

9,928

L5.084
2,354

37,284
3,539

5,149

12,566

172

51,746

12,805

18,166

79.87 1

15,881
138.051

33,898

1 I si 12

251.011'

8.9 11

152

21 584

1 1,538
13,089

1

122.657

9.6 17

2 1.070
1 1.957

36,727

36,053

18.997

25,8 19

1 1,064

1,5 14

9.023

2.693

2,558

1.396

3 830

5.. ',00

932

1.651

3.5O0

2.469
1,942

3,402

305

6,675

82

38.001'

3.472

12,636

20.729

15.187

26, 197

23.503
10.000

46,557

8,609

1 10

2.038

3,604

10.993

6

9.065

4.376
1.200

1,459

2.933
24,263
14.310

2.009
5.705
1.007
1.707
273
1.390

823
1.87;

4,576
964

Bohemian and Moravian
Bulgarian, Serbian,
Montenegrin

642

3.146
2. "39

< !roal ian and Slovenian

791
3.442

Dalmatian, Bosnian,

HiT/.t \ inian

Dutch and Flemish

Bast Indian

114

0.1 13
80

30.108

Finnish

French

5.0 19

19,518

11.555

Greek

20.792
15.108

20,636

4.905

33.909

Japanese

Korean

8.711
154
599

Magyai

981

Mexican

Pacific [slander

17,198

5
4,502

Poet uguese

12,208
953

4,858

Ruthenian i Russniak) . .

1.305
19.172

Scotch

13.515

57 7

Spanish

Spanish American

9.259

1.881
070

216

Welsh

983

Wesl Indian (except

948

3.388

Total

i on 570

S7s r,s7

B38 i 72

1,197.892

1,218,480

326.700

298,826

eluding Alaska. Hawaii. Porto Rico,
and the military and naval stations
abroad. The gainful workers thus
formed n. r. per cent of the total
populal ion.

In continental United States the
gainful workers numbered 38,167,-
a'M, which was 41.5 per cent of the

the males ten j ears of age and >>\ er.
in the female population the gainful
workers (lumbered 8,075,772, which
was 1':;. I per cent of all females ten
years of age and over. Thus, in the
population ten years of age and o\ er,
more than one-halt' of all persons,
over four-fifths Of the males, lull

POPULATION

35

....■.-." -- --■ ..'.'. . NQflppppi

KriiiOinnwmnain.ti

Photo by Irving Underhill

ELLIS ISLAND, AMERICA'S GREATEST GATEWAY

less than one-fourth of the females,
were gainfully occupied.

In the States the proportion of the
population ten years of age and over
engaged in gainful occupations in
1910 ranged from 4(1.0 per cent in
Iowa to 68 per cent in Mississippi.
The States having the smallest pro-
portions were: Iowa, 46.9 per cent:
Kansas, 47 per cent; Nebraska. 47.7
per cent; Utah, 47.9 per cent; and
Indiana 48 per cent. The States
having the largest proportion were
North Carolina, 60 per cent; Geor-
gia. 61.5 per cent; Wyoming. 62.6
per cent; Nevada, 64.3 per cent;
Alabama, 64.7 per cent ; South Caro-

lina, 67.6 per cent; and Mississippi,
68. 7 per cent. Except in three States
— Arizona, Montana and North Da-
kota— there was an increase, from
1900 to 1910, in the proportion of
the population ten years of age and
over engaged in gainful occupations.
The States showing the largest in-
creases were Alabama. Arkansas,
Georgia, Mississippi, Nevada, North
Carolina. South Carolina and Texas.

DEATHS IN REGISTRATION AREA

The total number of deaths re-
turned from the registration area of
the United States for the year 1914
was 898,059. The estimated mid-

NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN GENERAL DIVISIONS- OF

OCCUPATIONS

Occupation

Total

Per Cent of
Gainful
Workers

All occupations

38,167.336

100.0

Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry
Extraction of minerals (mining and quarrying)

12,619.203

964,824

10,658,881

L'.r,:{7.671

3.61 1,670

459,291

1.663,569

3.772.174

1.737.053

33.2
2 5

Manufacturing and mechanical industries .

27 9

Transportation

Trade

Public Service ....

Professional Service. .

Domestic and Personal Service . . .

9 9

Clerical Occupations

4.6

36

OIK COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

year population of this area was
65,989,295, or 66.8 per cent of the
total population of the United
States. The death rate for the year
was 13.6 per one thousand popula-
tion, the lowest on record since the
establishment of the registration
area in 1880, being 19.8 in 1880,
19.6 in 1890, 17.15 in 1900, 16.0 in
1005, lf>.0 in 1910 and 14.1 in 1913.

The deaths among the white pop-
ulation numbered 824,319, or 917.9
for every thousand deaths. Of this
number, 005.349 were native born;
327,696 had both parents native;
203,1S9 had one or both parents for-
eign born; and 74,404 of unknown
parentage. Other deaths among the
white population were 207,272 for-
eign born, and 11,698 unknown. The
deaths among the colored population,
numbering 73.740, or 82.1 for every
thousand deaths, were divided as
follows: .Negro. 70.429; Chinese,
1,018; Japanese. 904; Indian, 1,309;
and other colored, 20.

Of the total number of deaths
4,.tl.41('» were males, and 406,643
were females. The total number of
deaths among children less than one
year of age was 155,075; of those
from one to live years of age. 58,045;
from five to twenty-live, N0.355;
from twenty-live to fifty, 196,087;
from fifty to seventy-live. 217,207;
over seventy-five, 123,963, of which
467 were one hundred years of age
or over; and of ages unknown,
1,327. Out of every thousand
deaths 172.7 occurred before the end
of the lirst year of life: 96.2 between
the ages of live and twenty-five;

218.5 between the ul'cs of twenty-
live and fifty; .';i>7.<! between the
ages of fifty and seventy-live; and
138.0 over seventy-five years of age.

The number of deaths in the regis-
tration area during 1914 from vari-
ous causes were as follows: T.v
phoid fever, 10,188; malaria, 1.477:
smallpox, 212; measles, 4,401; scar-
let fever. 4,340; whooping cough.
6,816; diphtheria and croup, 11,786;
influenza, 0,014; other epidemic dis-
eases. 0.125; tuberculosis, 96,903;
cancer, 52,420; diabetes, 10,666;
diseases of the nervous system and
organs of special sense, 87,614: dis-
eases of the circulatory system. 123,-
901; diseases of the respiratory sys-
tem, 104,086 ; diseases of the diges
tive system, 99,673; non-venereal
diseases of the genito-urinary sys-
tem, 7s.oj::; suicide, 10,933; homi-
cide, 4.S47 ; and other external
causes, 51.770.

The death rate per 100,000 of pop-
ulation for the more important
causes was as follows: Typhoid
fever, 15.4: malaria. 2.2: measles,
6.8; scarlet fever. 6.6; whooping
cough, 10.3: diphtheria and croup.
17.9; influenza, 9.1: tuberculosis.
146.S; cancer, 79.4; diabetes, 16.2;
diseases of the nervous system and
organs of special sense. 132.8; dis-
eases of the circulatory system.
187.8; diseases of the respiratory
system, 157.7; diseases of the di-
gestive system, 151.0; non-venereal
diseases of the genito-urinary sys-
tem. 118.2; suicide, 16.6; homicide,
7..-:. and other external violence.
78.5.

CHAPTER III.

AGRICULTURE

By C. H. CLAUDY

THE unthinkable number is one
which conveys no idea to the
mind — a number so large that
one twice as large or half as large
makes the same impression.

Such a number measures the dol-
lars which value the agricultural
production of the United States in
a year. To say that the total esti-
mated value of all crops and animal
products for the year ending June

enough, working every minute of
every day and every night, to make
out deposit slips to put it in a bank
in a year's time. It represents a
hundred dollars for every man,
woman and child in the country.
If the cost of the Panama Canal is
$500,000,000, one year's crops would
build twenty such canals! If it
costs Europe $20,000,000 a day to
have a war, then we could finance

SCENE ALONG THE BRANDYWINE, SHOWING TYPICAL CHESTER COUNTY (PA.)

TOPOGRAPHY

30, 1915, is $10,501,686,375 conveys
small impression of its real worth.

If a man could keep awake
twenty-four hours in a day, and
could live for a hundred years under
such conditions, he would have to
spend during every waking minute
of his life something more than $199
to dispose of this sum in the hun-
dred years.

If the sum were handed him in
$5,000 lots, he could not write fast

it for them for seventeen months
with the agricultural products of
one year.

AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION

It is. of course, an impossibility
to do more than indicate the extent
of agriculture or its immense im-
portance not only to the United
States but to the world. Those who
wish particular facts of any special
subject can obtain Volume V. of the

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

38

(UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Census <>f 1910, which gives figures
Cor L909 in '.»-T closely printed pages,
many tallies and graphic drawings,
or the fear Hook of the Department
of Agriculture, which has a number
of "graphs" as well as 174 pages
of finely printed statistics. Best of
all, however, for the man interested
in some one special phase of this
question is the opportunity afforded
him by correspondence with the De-
partment of Agriculture. Inquiries
on any subject connected with agri-
culture receive prompt attention in
I'ncle Sam's greatest department
and information to answer any in-
quiry is either on hand or will be
obtained for any inquirer.

GEXEKAL STATISTICS
The total area of the Tinted States
is 1,903,269,000 acres, of this 46.2
per cent is productive land: that is,
land which is capable of being
turned into farm, grazing or tillable
area, exclusive of any possible fu-
ture engineering developments in
the reclamation held which may
make vast areas, now arid, agricul-
tural possibilities.

( )f this 46.2 per cent of productive
land. 293,794.000 acres (1910 census
figures, latest available), represent-
ing 15.4 per cent of the total area,
are under cultivation.

Thirty-six of the principal agri-
cultural countries of the world have
M0.5 per cent of their total area
possibly productive and but S.7 of
their total area under production.
With a ratio of a] (proximately one
to four for the world, then, the
United States has approximately
one to three (one-third i of its agri-
cultural possibilities developed.

FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE IX THE
UNITED STATES

The United States, in spite of its
showing in area and its leadership
of the world in the world's principal
crops, can by no means be considered
to have even begun to realize its
agricultural possibilities. It can
triple its area under cultivation
with the same methods and the
same productiveness and still fall
far behind the averages of other
countries which have been compelled
to make intensive agriculture a

INCREASK l\ VAI.UK <>F FARM PRODUCTS
BASED ON PKK'KS AT THK FAKM

Year

census
(census i

L879

1889
1897.
1898. . .

IN'.HI (census

1900

1901

1902

1903

1904

L905

L906

1907

1908

L909 (cens i

1910

I'.tll

1912

I'M:',

I'M I

1915 estimate

Total, gross

82,212,
2,460
3,960
4,338
1.717
5.009

5,302
5.594
5,887
6,121
6.273
6,764
7. IS7
7,890
8 558
9,037
8,819

9.849

9 894
10,501

540,
107,
821,
945,
069,
595,
120
645

170

77S

997,
210
988
625
161
390
17 i
7'. in
5 1 2
960
686

!r_>7
454
685
829
973
006
039
072
101
001

362
123
622
522

2L':?
711
959
1 19

51 I
53 1

.-'.7.-)

Crops

Value

$2,519
2,759
2,998
3,191
3,385
3,578
3,771
3 981
1,012
1,263
4,761

5 098
5,487
5,486
5,562
5.842
6,132
6,1 1 1

6 652

082.592
569,547
704.412
941,763
179,114
lie. 165
653,816
675,866
652,758

.1 1 1,839
292,549
,161,223
,373,550
058,150
,220,4 19
758,962

li.S-1.020

288 634

Percent-
age of
total

63 . 6
63 6

63 6

63 . 7
63 . s
64.0

64 1

65 (i
64 (»
63 0

63 6

64 6
i,i 1
60 7
63. l

62 S
R2 3
,,l s

63 3

Animals and animal

products

Value

81 ,441
1 ,.">7'1
1.7 IS

1 817
1,916
2.016
2,1 15
2,1 K)
2,261

2 51 1 1
2,726
2,792
3,071
3,551
3,257
3,500
3,716
3.783

3 849

739.093
:;7i;.2s2
365,561
653,243
940,925
228,607
516,288
L02.135
34 1,604
076,070
876,783
332,973
000,000

017. I'M

1 16,809
569,700
753,549
276.51 1
397.741

Percent-
age of
total

36.4
36.4
36.4
36.3
36.2
36.0
35.9

35 0

36 0
37.0
36 t
35 l
35.9
39 3
36.9
37.5
37.7
38.2
36.7

1(1

nil; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

study, from the potato field to the
orchard, the grazing field to the
wheat field.

The 1910 census gave 10,582,000
males as actively engaged in agri-
culture in the United States, 35.2
per cent of males engaged in all
occupations. Females engaged in
agriculture to the number of 1,806,-
584, 22.4 per cent of all women en-
gaged in all occupations. This
makes a total of 12.3S8.623 people
engaged in agriculture, or 32.5 per
cenl of the people engaged in all
occupations. Compare with the fol-
lowing countries (percentages from
most recenl figures obtainable) :

Of the total population there are
engaged in agriculture in Argentina
23.6 per cent. Australia 25.6 per
cent, Austria-Hungarj (pre-war) 03
per cent, British India (J7.1 per cent,
Canada ::9.9 per cent, France (pre-
war) 42.1 per cent. Germany (pre-
war) 34.6 per cent, Italy (pre-war i
58.S per cent, the Philippines 41.3
per cent, Spain 56.9 per cent. Sweden
52.S per cent, Union of South Africa
65.1 per cent, United Kingdom 12.4
per cent.

With these figures in mind, and
not forgetting the possibilities of
intensive cultivation, which, as
shown in the following statistics for
several commodities, is practiced
abroad so effectively as greatly to
increase the yield per acre over
United states figures, it is obvious
that the limit of agricultural devel-
opment in this country is so far
distant that no man can foresee it.
Eliminating all possibilities of in-
crease of tillable area through irri-
gation, and all possibilities of in-
crease of yield through modern
scientific development, not this nor
many future generations will see the
ability of this land to support its
population from an agricultural
standpoint reached or passed.

The more than double doubling of
farm products within one generation
is a sure indication of the wonderful
growth of the United States. Pages
mighl be written about it, hut could
do no more than show what the table
on page 38 expresses so vividly.

ARGENTINA
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

(pi-e-WOr)

BRITISH INDIES
CANADA

FRANCFCPre-wa-)

GERMANY(^<vvor)

ITALY (Pre-WOr-)

PHILIPPINES

SPAIN

SWEDEN

UNION OFSAFRICA

UNITED KINGDOM

UNITED STATES

PER CENT OF POPULATION ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS

42

ni R COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

KFFEcT OF Tin: WAS

The war has had a tremendous
effecl upon production of United

States staples and their export. The
wheat production 1915 was the
record for the United states, greater
than any previous year by 128,000,-
ooo bushels. Exports of wheat and
wheat flour jumped from $142,000,-
O00 in 1014 to $428,000,000 in 1915,
a proportion which is considerably
less than the jump in corn, which
with cum meal was from $7,000,000
to over $39,000,000. Neither crop,
however, compares in its export
jump with oats. In 1014 the Tinted
States exported $1,000,000 worth and
in 1915 $57,000,000 worth. It is
hardly necessary to chronicle, be-
cause every one knows that the im-
mense increase in exports of food
stuffs as well as manufactures
changed the status of the balance
of trade for this country. It is also
well known how the export of cotton
decreased, the figures being from
$610,000,000 to $376,000,000 in a
year.

But in spite of the loss in cotton
the war has had on the whole a
very beneficial effecl upon American
agriculture. Exports of wheat and
wheat flour represented over M7 per
cent of the 1014 crop, while the usual
exportation is less than 20 per cent.
Farmers received an average of 79
cents iter bushel for the 1913 wheat
crop and $1.01 for the crop of 1014.
an increase of '■>- cents per bushel
or an aggregate gain of approxi-
mately $100,000,000.

PRODUCTION OF SPECIAL CROPS

Because of the vastness of the
subject it is impossible to do more
than indicate here the value and
extent of a few of the principal

crops of the United States. 1 nless
otherwise stated, statistics given are
for 1015 and prices are values at
the farm.

Because the United states pro-
duces more wheat than any other
country, and a greai deal more than
we use. many people think wheat is
our principal crop. Such is not the
case, corn being the principal crop
of the United states.
Corn

One hundred and ei^ht million
three hundred and twenty-one thou-
sand acres in the United States are
under cultivation for the corn crop
of 3,054,535,000 bushels. As the
production for all of North America.
including Canada. United States and
Mexico; Argentina, Chile and Uru-
guay in South America: Austria-
Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Italy,
Portugal and Roumania, Russia.
Servia. Spain. India (both British
and native states), Japan, the Philip-
pine Islands. Algeria, Egypt and
Union of South Africa. Australia
and New Zealand, was hut 3,864,-
l.'7'.Uim bushels in 1014. it is easily
understood why the United States
is the greatest corn producing coun-
try in the world. Argentina, with
10,386,000 acres under corn cultiva-
tion, is next in productive ability.
hut her total crop for 1915 was but
338,000,235 bushels.

PRODUCTION" of CORN I\ THE UNITED STATES 1849-1910

Year

Acreage

\\ erage

j icM pei-
acre

Production

Average

farm price
per bushel

Farm Value

1849

V.CF68

Push.

Lis I
29.4

28 I

_'.". '.i
28 2

Bushels

592,071.000

838,793,000

760,945,000

1,754.592.000

•_'. 122,328,000

2,61 MJ.32 1,000

2,552, 190 000

4,535,000

Cents

57 .'9

~>7 . 5

Dollars

IS.". '.I

L869

1879

62,369,000
72,088,000
94,914,000
183,000
108,321,000

L889

L899

L909
1915

\A77.22.i.()00
L.755,859,000

ACKICILTURE

43

Wheat

World production of wheat is
4,216,806,000 bushels. Of this the
United States produces 1.011,505,000
bushels, more than is grown even in
Russia, the yield of which is esti-
mated to be 833,965,000 bushels. In
the United States 59,89S,000 acres
are under cultivation for wheat, an
increase of over 9.000,000 acres in
the past two years. A remarkable
fact in connection with the world's
wheat production is that Germany,
which produces but 160,000,000 bush-
els of wheat in a year, has. by an
average of statistics for ten years,
a yield of 30.7 bushels to the acre,
whereas the average for the same
period in the United States is but
14.S bushels. Hungary has an aver-
age of 18.1 bushels. France 20.1 and
the United Kingdom 33.4 bushels.
Either land abroad is more produc-
tive or methods of farming are more
intensive ; nevertheless the United
States easily leads the world in pro-
ducing the raw material for the staff
of life.
On a basis of prices as on Decem-

TAKING ON A CARGO OF WHEAT

her 1st. the value of tbis wheat crop
is $930,302,000. Wheat is produce.]
in every State in the Union, although

.Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Connecticut. Florida
and Louisiana produce but little.
North Dakota is the greatest wheat
producing Sate, yielding 151,970,000
bushels, followed by Kansas with
106,53S,000 bushels.

It is interesting to note that the
average yield per acre in bushels

WORLDS WHEAT PRODUCING AREAS

n

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF RICE & OATS

Increased in 101." to 10.0 bushels
per acre, which is considerably
greater than the smallest year
(1911) yield average of 12% bush-
els per acre. The 1915 yield per
acre was almost 2 bushels an acre
greater than the average for the 10
years from 1906 to 1916, which was
exactly 15 bushels to the acre for
the whole United States. It Is also
interesting and a little puzzling to

lean: that the greatest yield of

wheat per acre eoines from Vermont,
not known as a wheat producing

Slate. but the \\-\v wheat farms Of

which give an average <>f ::o bushels

In the acre. The poorest wheat pro-
ducing State in yield per acre is
Tennessee with 10%, followed by
South Carolina with 10.8 bushels
per acre.

OaU

Fortj million seven bundred and
eighty thousand acres of farm land
are under cultivation for oat'-, pro-
ducing 1,540,362,000 bushel-. The
world's production i- estimated to
he in excess of 1,700,000,000 bushels.

Russia produces the second largest
amount with 1,006,983,000 bushels,
followed by Germany with 650,000.

01 M l bushels. The United States falls
far below other countries in the
average yield of oats per acre. The
average yield in the United states
from 1905 to 191 1 was 29.5 bushels
per acre. In the same period Ger
many produced 54, Hungary 31.5,
France 31J and the United Kingdom
43.5 bushels of oats per acre. The
total value of the oats produced in
the United States in 1915 was $555,-
569,000.

Barley

Unspectacular, because compara-
tively little known, is the barley
crop, yet the United States has
7,395,000 acres devoted to its pro-
duction, resulting in 237,009,000
bushels. Barley is much more
largely grown and highly thought
of abroad than here. World produc-
tion is 1,542,972,000 bushels, of
which Russia produces 17o.100.000
bushels, almost double that >f the
United states. The value of the

AGRICULTURE

45

United states barley crop is $122,-
499,000.

Rye

Forty-nine million one hundred
and ninety thousand bushels of rye,
valued at $41,295,000, grew on
2,856,000 acres, a small fraction of
the world's production of 1,711,158,-
000 bushels. Any farm product in
the United States worth less than
$50,000,000 for the year is to be con-
sidered among the comparatively
unimportant products.

Buckwheat

Similarly buckwheat, of which
806,000 acres produce 15,769,000
bushels at a value of $12,408,000,
comes among the unimportant crops,
yet buckwheat, used as it is largely
for a breakfast food, is increasing
in popularity in the United States.
The value of the product ten years
ago was but $S,565,000 ; twenty
years ago it was $6,936,000.

Potatoes
Although corn and wheat lead the
agricultural products of the United

states, potatoes are among the most
commercially important. They af-
ford one of the most nutritious and
one of the cheapest foods for the
table of rich and poor alike. A
failure in the potato crop means dis-
aster. Three million seven hundred
and sixty-one thousand acres are
devoted in the United States exclu-
sively to the production of potatoes.
The production is .359,103.000 bush-
els, a large increase in the past ten
years, the 1905 figures being 260,-
741,000 bushels. The average farm
price per bushel is 61.6 cents, or a
total value for the whole crop of
$221,104,000. Potatoes are among
the most universally grown crops in
the United States, every State pro-
ducing enough to make a variation
in the statistics if omitted. Even
little Rhode Island has over 5,000
acres devoted to the production of
the popular "spud," growing 550,000
bushels. Maine and New York are
the two largest producers of pota-
toes, both accounting for 22,010,000
bushels. The value of the New York
crop is about $3,000,000 greater than

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF MAIZE & BARLEY

46

OUR COUNTRY A.sl» its RES( »1 RCES

that of the Maine crop, although
Maine produces its crop from l 12,000
acres, whereas New York has 355,-
000 acres engaged in potato produc-
tion.

The production <>f potatoes abroad
makes a curious comparison with
that of the United Stales. The world
production is 5,714,188,000 bushels
(1913 figures). Of this enormous
total Austria-Hungary alone pro-
duced 627,728,000, one third mere
bushels than produced and used by
the United States in 1915. Germany

by it he sustains his working tools,
the farm animals, and feeds the
stuck, which is in itself a crop. In
the United States 50,872,000 acres
produce hay with an average yield
of 1.68 tens per acre. This makes
the total production 85,225,000 tons,
a weight as impossible to realize as
it is to grasp the fact that it is
\ alued at $912,320,000. The com-
bined navies of the world have not
a tonnage equal to the United states
hay crop. A fleet of two thousand
boats, each the size and dimensions

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF POTATOES & SAGO

produces 1,674,377,000 bushels of po-
tatoes, whereas the total for l'.uro-
pean Russia is 1,269,696,000 hush-
els. It is amusing to note that of
the 279,121,000 bushels produced by
the United Kingdom in 19] I. Scot-
land grew 10,270,000, Wales 5,4 15,-
000, England 104,504,000 and Ire-
land the balance of 128,642,000
bushels of Irish "praties."

Hay

To the farmer few crops are of
more Importance than hay. because

of the ill-fated "Lusltania," would
not weigh as much, nor are there
wheeled vehicles enough in the

United States, outside of railroad
equipment, to load a year's crop
upon it and haul it to market in one
day's time. New York and Pennsyl-
vania are the two leading States.
the former growing 5,850,000 tons
on 4,500,000 acres, valued at $91,-
845,000, and the latter growing
1,340,000 tons on 3,100,000 acres,
valued ai $67,704,000. Rhode Island
produced the least amount of hay,

AGRIC1 LTURE

47

getting 71,000 tons from 57,000
acres.

Cotton

No crops are more important to
manufacturing than cotton. Most
agricultural products either feed the
world or the animals which, work-
ing for farmers, assist in feeding the
world. Cotton and wool, however,
are agricultural products which are
used for clothing, and cotton, much
more than wool, is of enormous im-
portance in the arts. The war con-
ditions hurt the cotton industry in
this country to a very large extent.
but a recovery is now under way.
and even though the war continues
it will in time grow nearly to nor-
mal. Under usual conditions over
65 per cent of the cotton crop of the
United States is exported, 53 per
cent of our total agricultural ex-
ports consisting of cotton. Conse-
quently anything which hurts its ex-
portation strikes a blow at the whole
cotton industry of the United States,
much as if over half of our wheat
crop or half of our farm animals
should suddenly be wiped out of
existence.

On the 1st of August, 1914, cotton
sold at an average of 12.4 cents a
pound. By November it had declined
to (I..-: cents a pound, a reduction of
nearly one half. The whole cotton
crop of 1913 averaged to its pro-
ducers 12*4 cents per pound, where-
as that of 1914 averaged but 7.3
cents, a decline of over 40 per cent.
In other words, over $283,000,000,
or one-third of the estimated value
of the cotton crop, was lost on ac-
count of the war, and this in spite
of the fact that production in 1914
was almost 2,000,000 bales greater
than in 1913.

It is difficult for the uninitiated
to appreciate the extent to which
the South depends upon its cotton
product. Cotton and cotton seed
represent almost two thirds of the
value of all crops produced in
Georgia and Mississippi. Cotton
represents 63 per cent of the value
of al, crops produced in Texas, 60
per cent of those produced in Ala-

bama and 53 per cent of those pro-
duced in Arkansas.

The industrial depression caused
by the shrinkage in cotton values
was severe, but by June, 1915, the
total shipments for the year were
within 8 per cent of the preceding
year. Nevertheless the value has
shrunk, in spite of crop recovery,
over 38 per cent. As a result of this,
plus the foreign demand for grain,
the acreage under cultivation for
wheat, barley, oats and other cereals
needed abroad has greatly increased,
while cotton planters now plant a
much smaller acreage than in pre-
war times. The estimate for the
cotton crop for the fiscal year is

B"»>{

> •

£ \

- fcdtf

: ^*r

£"J

9S* ^^5

1 Tl|W

JflBB

■ ■ ' > ■ •' i

E^H

Sgtjj23

1 si r&8*

J pp

^QPWSi

MECHANICAL COTTON PICKER

less than 11,000,000 bales, which,
compared with the production of
16,134,000 bales in 1914 and with
an average yearly production in the
preceding five years of 13,033,000
bales, is rather small. The decrease
results from a reduction of about 15
per cent in the acreage planted in
cotton and a 20 per cent poorer yield.
Few countries give official statis-
tics for the production of cotton, so
that to state any figure and call it
the world's production of cotton is
impossible with any degree of accu-
racy. British I n d i a produced

50

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

4,238,494 bales of cotton in 1914
against over 16,000,000 for the
United States for the same year.
The total for Russia Id 1914 was
1,177,995 bales and Egypt is credited
with 1,4501000 bales during the same
period, statistics of 1910 give the
world's production of l'l'J:::'..!');!)
bales of cotton, but arc frankly in-
accurate and arc only for those com-
paratively few countries from which
figures arc available. Normally the
United states has under cultivation

in the neighborh 1 of 36,000,000

acres of cotton and could normally
expect this year to produce a much
larger quantity than will be picked
under the abnormal conditions.

Texas is the largest producer of
cotton among the States, accounting
for 3,175,000 bales of 500 pounds
each. Georgia is next with 1,900,-
000 hales, followed by South Caro-
lina with 1,160,000 hales. Virginia
lias the smallest cotton crop, mar-
keting hut 16,000 bales.

Tobacco

In the year 1849 the United States
produced 199,753,000 pounds of
tobacco. In 1915 our production was
1,060,587,000 pounds, a crop valued
at $96,041,000 at the farms of 1,368,-
400 acres which produced it. Ken-
tucky is the Leading tobacco state.
with 356,400,000 pounds yearly, fol-
lowed by North Carolina with 198,-
100,000 and Virgina with 1 14,375,-
(hio pounds.

Tobacco is one of the agricul-
tural products which we both export
and import, the Imports, however.
falling far short of the exports. In
191 i our exports were 348,346,091
pounds (more than 40 per cent of
the crop) and our imports 1 .~. . T « '► 4 . -
TL'S pounds. The reason for any im-
ports, of course, is the fact thai
there are SO many varieties of
tobacco, and not all kinds grow well.
or in sufficient quantity, in the cli-
mate of our Southern States. Both

exports and Imports given above are
of the unmanufactured tobacco.
World figures for tobacco production
are not available with any degree

of accuracy since p.m. when the
total was 2,566,202,000 pounds, not

unite three times the production of

the United States alone in that year.

Flax
Hue million three hundred and
sixty-seven thousand acres produce
13,845,000 bushels of flax and flax
seed, of which the average farm
price per bushel is $1,739. The total
value is thus $24,080,000. North
Dakota leads all tlax producing
states with an acreage of 660,000
and a production of 6,534,000 hush-
els, and as the value of this North
Dakota flax was over $11,000,000
this one State has nearly half the
tlax industry of the United States.

Rice
Rice is nor one of the great crops
of the United States and yet an
acreage of 803,000 is devoted' to its
growing. Twenty-eighl million nine
hundred and forty-seven bushels of
rice, with a value of $26,212,000, i-
the rice industry's contribution to
our agricultural wealth. For com-
parison with statistics of other coun-
tries it is necessary to express pro-
duction in pounds. In 1914 we grew
656,917,000 pounds, while Italy pro-
duced 741,263,000 pounds and British
India 62,638,912,000 pounds. Japan
grew 17,827,247,000 pounds and our
own Philippine Islands 1,403,516,000
pounds. Just what a small propor-
tion of the total rice crop of the
world is ours is shown by the
world's figures for 1913, 100,700,000,-
000 pounds of rice.

.1/;///' x

Apples arc among die Important

fruit crops of the United states.

Of three bushel barrels there were

76,670,000 grown, at an average

price of 7 1.6 cents per bushel at
the farm. The principal apple pro-
ducing State is New York, with
8,528,000 barrels, followed by Mis-
souri with 6,287.000 barrels and
Pennsylvania with 5,085,000 barrels.
There arc more than .".."i varieties of
apples extensively grown ill the
United States, oi which the most

54

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF WINE

popular is the Baldwin, with 13.4
per cent of the total crop: followed
by Ben Davis, 13.3 per cent; North-
ern Spy, 6.1 per cent; Winesap, .">.!
per cent; Rhode Island Greening,
4.7 per cent, and Jonathan, with 3.6
per cent of the total crop. The total
production of apples in the United
States was considerably less in 1915
than in 1914, the difference being
over 8,000,000 barrels, which is al-
most exactly the difference between
the production in 191 1 and 1915 In
New York State.

Peaches
Tinted States orchards produce
64,218,000 bushels of peaches. The
farm price per bushel averages 81.1
cents, making the total peach crop
..f the United states $52,080,798 in
value. California leads in the peach
production with 9,768,000 bushels.
followed by Arkansas witb 5,940,000
and Georgia witb .-...",:;( >.(mki bushels.

77o/).s
According to 1913 statistics the
principal bop producing countries

of the world grew 173,937,000 pounds
of bops. Of this quantity the Tinted
states produced 62,898,000 pounds.
The following year, 1914, the hop
production in the United States
dropped to 43,415,000 pounds. As
might be expected, Germany, if not
the loader, is very close to the front
in the production of this herb, be-
ing responsible (1!)14) for 55,227,-
ooo pounds. The United Kingdom
produced 1. .".on. i ii to pounds more than

TOMATO PLANTS TRAINED ON TWINE
TRELLISES

56

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Germany. No 1915 figures for imps
are as ye1 available.

Brans

Beans, a universal food, are grown
all over the world. The world's

bean crop is enormous, but available
statistics are too scattering, even in
the largest bean producing countries.
to have any .meat degree of accu-
racy. The Tinted States has no
official figures for beans later than
1912, which were issued by the cen-
sus office. In that year 11,145,000
bushels of beans were grown. Aus-
tria-Hungary beats this production
by almost 50 per cent, growing 2<>.-
445,000 bushels; France produces
9,354,000 bushels (1014), Italy 16,-
997,000 (1914) and European Rus-
sia 12,717,000 (1913) bushels. The
price of beans in the United States
in 1915 fluctuated between $2.15 and
$6.40 per bushel.

Peas
One million three hundred and
two thousand acres in 1912 was the
area devoted to the production of

pens in the United States. There
are no later official figures. The
1012 production was 7,110,000 bush-

FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS

els. comparing not at all with Euro-
pean Russia, which in the same year
produced 32,128,000 bushels, or even
with Spain, which produced 9,885,-
000 bushels, although the Spanish
figures for peas include chick peas.
lentils and vetches.

S0UTHD0WNS IN PASTURE

58

nl K < <tl X 1IC V AND ITS RESOURCES

Sugar
Sugar beets and sugar cane form
a very important industry in the
United States, there being <i7 fac-
tories engaged in the production of
beel sugar from beets. These fac-
tories produce 862,800 short tons of
sugar, chiefly refined. Six hundred
and twenty-four thousand acres are
devoted to the production of sugar
beets, each acre yielding an aver-
age of I'M short tons of beets, so

sugar heets, whereas in all Europe
the total devoted to heets was
5,502,200 acres (1913). It is. there-
fore, not surprising to note that
Europe's production of sugar from
heets iii 1913 was Cl.T74.4lM) tons
againsl the five and one half million
of the United States. Louisiana is
the cane sugar center. In 1!>14. the
last year for which statistics are
available, 14!> factories produced
242,700 short tons of sugar from

SMUDGE POTS

that 6,462,000 tons were utilized.
Sugar heets average $5.54 per ton.
The principal refineries are located
in ( 'alifornia (lit. < !olorado (14),
Idaho i 1 1, Michigan 1 15), < >hio (4)
and Utah (8).

The United States is by no means
the world Leader in beel sugar, Aus-
tria-Hungary producing over l.7<x>,-
000 and Germany 2,755,750 short
ions, in the United states, accord-
ing to 191 » figures, a total of 183,-
100 acres were devoted to growing

3,199,000 short tons of sugar cane.
The average yield of cane per acre
in Louisiana was 15 tons, a loss of
two ions from the unusually luxuri-
ant production in 1913, 17 tons to
the acre.

The Hawaiian Islands have 4t!
factories, which average 183 days
operation in the year. In 193 1 the
Hawaiian factories produced 612,0u0
shorl tons of sugar from the harvest
of 11i'.7(hi acres. The average yield
per acre was \:\ short tons, a total

AGRICULTURE

AND

WORLD'S CATTLE RAISING REGIONS

WORLDS SHEEP RAISING REGIONS

uu

in R COT NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

( VTTLE STATIST!! !S

Milch Cows

Other Cattle

Jan. 1

X umber

Price

per
head

Jan. 1

Farm value
Jan. i

X umber

Price

per
head

Jan. 1

Farm value
Jan. 1

1 867 ....
L876. . . .
1886. . . .
1896. . . .
1906. . . .
L916

8.349,000
1 1 ,085,000
14. 235. 00(1
16,138 000
19,794,000
21,988,000

si's 7 1
25 . 61
27.40
22 55
29.44
53.90

S239.947.000
283,879,000
389 986,000
363.956,000
582 789,000

1,185,119,000

11.731.000
16,785,000
31.275,000
32,085,000
17,068,000
39,453.000

$15 79
17.00
21.17
15 86
15 85
33.49

S185.254.000
285,387,000

661.956.000

508,928,000

746.172000

1,321,135,000

CHURNING BUTTER IN A CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY— INSERT SHOWS A
MODERN MILK-MAID

product! £ 4,900,000 shorl tons

of cane. The Hawaiian cane is ex-
tremely rich, requiring bul a single
short ton of cane to produce 250
pounds of sugar, an average yield of
10,86] pounds of sugar per acre of
cane

LIVE STOCK

Horses and Mules

Increase in numbers of horses and

mules on United Stales farms has

fully kept pace with the increase in

population. The census of 1870

showed 7,145,370 horses and 1,125,-

12

(il K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

U5 mules in the United States, The
estimated Dumber for L916, based on
the best available statistics, is 21,-
166,000 horses and 4,565,000 mules.
The average value of a farm horse
in 1870 was $67.43. To-day it is
$101.60. The average price of a

For instance, the average price per

head for horses in the Chicago Horse
Market in 1914 was $208 for a
drafter, $483 for a carriage team.
$169 for drivers. $160 for general

horses. sls4 for saddle horses, and
so on. These figures represent a con-

KAKM PRODUCT CARRIED AS FREIGHT IX THE UNITED STATES. 1912-1914

Year ending .June 30

Product

1912

1913

1914

Animal mat ter:

Short tons
14,147,000

Short tons
15,042,000

Short tons
14,811,000

Packing-house products

2,346.000
1.139.000

2,360,000

2,407,000
1, 121,000

2.345.0(H)

2,283.000

1,081,000

Other packing-house products

2,375.000

Total packing-house products

5,845,000

5,873,000

5.739.000

Poult rv (including game and flshi

Wool

768,000

407,000

3,807,000

847.000

398,000

4,286,000

915,000
409.000

5,264.000

24.974,000

26,446,000

27,138,000

Vegetable matter:
( iotton

4.953,000
12,880,000

3,942.000
16.099.000

4,141,000

16,795.000

drain and grain products

39,299,000

8,629.000
7,081,000

50,945,000

9,523,000
7,830.000

16,015,000

( irain products —

Flour

9:697.000

7,824,000

Total grain and grain products

55.009.000

68.29S.000

63,536,000

Hay

6, S2S. ooo

3,233.000

982,000

10. 125. 000

7.145.000
3,599,000

1.091 .000

9, 193,000

7,319,000

3,926,000

1.071 .000

9,338.000

Total egetable matter

94,010.000

109.667 OOO

106.126.000

118,984,000

136,113,000

133,264,000

farm mule in isvo was $90. 12. To
day it is Si 13.87. The total value
of all horses in 1870 was $556,251,-
000. To-day it is $2,150,468,000.
Mules were valued in 1870 at $106,-
1:54.000. To-day their value runs in
c :cess of $519,820,000.

The average price of any coin
modify for the whole United states
is seldom equal to 1 be market price
as paid in any of I he greal markets.

siderable Increase in recent years,
Chicago prices for 1901 being $157
for drafters. $400 for carriage team.
$137 for drivers, $102 for horses for
general work and $1 I" for saddle
horses.

Iowa farms possess more horses
than any other state, having 1,584,
()(K). Illinois comes next with 1,452,-
000, then Texas with 1,180,000, with
Kansas, .Montana and Nehraska

s>

a> ^

as.

ui

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

WORLDS PRODUCTIONS OF HIDES AND SKINS

WORLDS DAIRY PRODUCTION

AGRICULTURE

65

next, all having more than 1,000,000.
Texas easily leads in the possession
of mules with 753,000. Montana fol-
lows with 329,000 and Georgia has
309,000.

Texas, of course, is the great cat-
tle State. Nineteen sixteen figures
give the Lime Star ranges 1,119,000
milch cows and 5,428,000 other cat-
tle. Iowa follows with 1,391,000
milch cows and 2,737,000 other cat-
tle. Illinois, Wisconsin and Minne-
sota are all among the greatest
cattle States, the stock on farms out-
numbering even the great herds in
more strictly cattle States, such as
Oklahoma is popularly supposed to
be with its 1,688,000 head.

Sheep

Sheep, like cattle, are valued not
only for their meat but for wool
and hide. United States sheep total
49,162,000. The average price per
head is .$5.17, making the total farm
value $254,348,000 for all the sheep
in the United States. Wyoming, the
great sheep State, leads with a herd
of 4.388.000, followed by Montana
with 3,941,000, New Mexico with
3,440,000, Idaho with 3,102,000 and

Ohio with 3,067,000. While this
enormous herd roams the Western
plains and Eastern farms 36,000,698
fleeces are marketed, the average
weight of which is 6.78 pounds, the
total product in the raw state being
228,777,000 pounds of wool.

Swine

Farms of the United States pos-
sess a herd of 68,047,000 swine, the
average price of which is $8.40 per
head, or a total farm value of $571,-
890,000 for pork alone. Iowa is the
great pork State of the Union, av-
eraging in 1916. 9,069,000 hogs and
pigs of all kinds, followed by Mis-
souri, Illinois, Nebraska and Indiana,
all over 4,000,000 each.

RESUME

The space at hand forbids an ex-
tension of this brief survey of a
part of the agricultural wealth of
the United States. Perhaps no one
set of figures can show in more suc-
cinct manner the extent of the farm-
ing activities of this country than
the table on page 62 of our agricul-
tural products carried on railroads
and therefore marketed.

CHAPTEE IV.
THE FISH WE EAT

By RALSTON MOORE

THE last report of the United
States Census dealing with the
fishing industries of the United
States is that of 190S. The next
report will he in 1918. The 190S
figures, given below, are therefore
only authoritative in giving a com-
parison between the various pisca-
torial products of our waters and
cannot be accepted too literally
even there, as the past eight years
have seen many changes in some of
the industries.

ture, but detailed figures of certain
other fish industries are available
through the work of the Bureau of
Fisheries.

The greatest fishing industry of
the Atlantic Coast is conducted by
the fleets centering at Boston and
Gloucester. Three hundred and
ninety-three vessels were in these
fleets in 1914, including sail, gaso-
line and steam vessels.

There were 7,598 trips made by
these vessels, landing at both ports

FROZEN HALIBUT IN STOKE AT
SEATTLE

CLEANING THE FISH ON A STEAM
HALIBUT FISHERMAN

The most imi>ortant sea food in-
dustry in the United States is un-
questionably the oyster industry.
No product of the water has a
greater nutritive value and none is
more readily caught and sold than
this shell fish. No statistics, how-
ever, later than those of the census
of 190S are available for oyster cul-

162,589,220 pounds of fish, valued al
$4,395,030. This shows a decrease
in the number of trips from the pre-
vious year of 1.231. an increase in
the catch of 37l\434 pounds, but a
decrease in the value of $587,987.

In 1914. 57.754.12S pounds of bud-

Copyright by Muim & Co., Inc.

68

OUR C(il \ | |;v AND ITS RESOURCES

PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES: 1908.

Species. Pounds.

AJewives 89,978,000

Black bass 3,313,000

Bluefish 7,647,000

Bream or Sunfish 4,738,000

Buffalo fish 16,729,000

Butterfish 6.855,000

Carp, German 42,763,000

Catfish 17,817,000

Cod 109,453,000

Croaker 8,143,000

Cusk 6,344.000

Drum, fresh-water 6,532,000

Drum, salt-water 4,576,000

Eels 3,358,000

Flounders 23,346,000

Haddock 59,987,000

Hake 34,340,000

Halibut 34,441,000

Herring 125,050,000

Herring (lake) 41,118.000

Mackerel 12, 103,000

Menhaden 394,776,000

Mullet 33,703,000

Perch, white 2,412,000

Perch, yellow 7,S9S,000

Pike and P'ekerel 2,959,000

Pike perc'. 15,247,000

Pollock 29,462,000

Pompar c- 570,000

Rockfi r. 2,454,000

Saline n 90,417,000

Scup 8,414,01 10

Sea brtss 6,352,000

Shad 27,64 1 ,1 H H I

Smelt 4,340,000

Snapper, red 13.49S.000

Spanish mackerel 3,806,000

Squeteague 49,869,000

Striped bass 3,657, I

Sturgeon 2,072.000

Suckers 8,555,000

Swordfish 2,71 1,000

Trout 12.024.000

Whitefish 7. 7-'-', mho

Lobsters 15,270. 000

Shrimp 14.374,000

(lams, hard 7,805,000

( lams, soft 8,654,000

Oysters 233,309,000

Mussel shells 81,869,000

Pearls and slugs

Terrapin 368,000

I urtles 1,088,000

Sponges 622,000

Alligator hides 372,000

Mink skins 22,000

Muskrat skins 1 19,000

i Itter skins 7,600

\\ halebone 63,000

Scallops . 2,41 l.ooo

' >il, sperm 3,391,000

Oil, whale 573,000

Irish moss 772,000

Dollars.

589.000
255.000
506,000
120,000
498,000
237,000

1,135,000
785,000

2.903.C00
226,000
105,000
154,000
154.000

588,000
1,308,000

464,000

1,562,000

796.000

9S9.000

S4S.000

893,000

908,000

137,000

258,000

174,000

580,000

402,000

71.000

66,000

3,347,000

290,000

284,000

2,113,000

174.000

194,000

1.776.000
314,000

L57,

215.000
198,000

M 10.000

524.000

1.931,000

390,

1. SI 7. 000

553, i

15,7 13. 000
392,000
300,000

M 1.000

40,000

54.".. 000
(i 1.000
89.000

136,000

30.000

215,000

317.000

252,000

30,000

2'».000

The total quantity and value of the products of the fisl eries of the United States including
the items mentioned above and all other fish products was 1,893,454,000 pounds, valued at
$54,031,000. No later figures are available at time of publication. Iu many cases there
was an increase, in other cases a decrease.

FISH EGG CAR OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES

INTERIOR OF FISH COMMISSION CAR, WITH BERTH LET DOWN

70

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

dock were Landed, valued at $1,381,
156. This was Mil increase in the
Dumber of pounds Landed during the
previous year by over four million,
but a decrease of $100,000 in value.

POLLOCK

Pollock lisb. which are caughl
with purse seines, yielded a less
number of pounds and value in 193 I
than 1913, the I'.M I catch being 12,-
454,723 pounds, valued at $199,736.

sw OKDFISH

Swordfish were less plentiful in
1914 than several years previously.
American fishing vessels landed at
Boston and Gloucester in 1914
L,499,844 pounds of fresh swordfish,
valued at $177,669.

COD

Cod is among the most important
fish; it is marketed both fresh and
salt, and as cod and scrod, the latter
being from one to two and one half

pounds in weight. The total catch
of all kinds landed .-it Boston and
Gloucester was. in 1!)14. fresh cod,
36,079,873 pounds, valued at $917,-
908; salted cod, 11,449,757 pounds,
valued at $411,508.

Newfoundland herring landed al
Boston, Gloucester and other New
England ports during the season of
1914 and the first part of 1915
amounted approximately to 2,570,-
352 pounds of fresh frozen fish, and
49,166 barrels, amounting to 11,071.-
584 pounds, of salted herring.

HALIBUT

Halibut valued at $246,000 for
3,063,000 pounds, and salted halibut

to the amount of 316,000 pounds,
valued at $30,000, was packed dur-
ing the year.

CUSK
Cusk yielded 5,747,053 pounds

A ROUGH MOKNING ON THE HALIBUT BANKS. LANDING A SMALL CATCH

THE FISH WE EAT

fresh, valued at $99,000, and salted,
111,937 pounds, valued at $3,200.

Hake was caught to the amount
of 7,404,335 pounds, valued at .$146,-
030, and salted to the amount of
222,033 pounds, valued at .$4,218.

LOBSTERS

Lobsters are caught from Lewes.
Del., to the tip of Maine, and pro-
vide 12,207.017 pounds of sea food
annually (1913), valued at $2,394,-
S22 for 8,832,281 lobsters. The in-
dustry shows the peculiar and
anomalous condition of a steadily
decreasing output and a steadily in-
creasing profit to those engaged. In
twenty-four years' time the yearly
catch has decreased by more than
18,000,000 pounds, or 60 per cent,
while the fisherman's receipts have
increased by a million and a half

dollars, or 178 per cent. In L880
the lobster brought an average of
.024 cents a pound. In 1913 lobsters
averaged .191 cents per pound, nearly
ten times as much as in 1880 and
two and a half times as much as
in l!)O0.

ALASKAN

The 1914 season saw the Alaska
fishing industry at its height of
value. It afforded employment to
21,200 persons and included the in-
vestment of $37,000,000. The total
value of the products of the Alaskan
fishers is estimated at $2L2*3,0u0,
an advance of over $5,500,0o0 over
1913, due largely to an unusual
abundance of red salmon and the
higher prices commanded by canned
salmon.

SEAL

The fur seal service reports from
the Pribilof Islands a satisfactory

FISH CULTURAL STATION, B0ZEMAN, MONTANA

72

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

condition of the seal herd. A com-
plete census of the seals shows L!94.-

f,s7. ail increase of nearly L!7.<MHi
animals over the year 1913. The
L915 census has not yet been com-
pleted but indicates an increase of
60,000 animals over 1014.

M l SSEL

The Bureau Of Fisheries has been
conducting a general canvass of
fresh-water mussel fishing, which
ha:, been in progress for several

with supervision of propagation and
distribution of food and game fishes
and scientific investigations into all

matters pertaining to tisli. In 1914
the enormous quantity of 44i88,757,-
^<H» tish and ova were distributed.
The greater proportion of this, of
course, was egg and not tish. but
fingerling, yearling and adult tish
numbered over 58,000,000, an in-
crease of 150 per cent over 1914.
Of this number, salmon, trout and
bass contributed the larger part.

SPAWNING TROUT AT NEOSHO,
HATCHERY

MO.,

FISH CULTURAL STATION, WYTHE-
VILLE, VA.

years on the streams inland. The
canvass covered in 1914 included
tributaries to the Great Lakes and
the Ohio anil Mississippi Rivers.
Three thousand nine hundred and
fifty-two persons were engaged in
taking mussels in the streams under
consideration and in preparing them
for the market The mussel fisher-
ies hail an output of '_'::. .'117 tons of
shells, valued at $382,210, and yield-
ed pearls worth $164,261. The shells
are used iii the ma nufact lire of pearl
buttons.

Bl BEAT] OP Fisii i BEES

The Bureau <»f Fisheries of the

Department of Commerce is charged

Perhaps nothing in the work ><(
the bureau is more spectacular than

its development of a new tish indus-
try— the catching and marketing of
tile tish. This edible and nutritive
lish was practically unknown in the
market prior to October of 1915.
Beginning with November. 1915, and
up to August, 1916, 6,938,000 pounds
of tile lish have been taken and mar-
keted for $255,000. So rapidly did
the tish impress consumers with its
value that the July. 191b. catch was
over 1400 per cent greater than that
of the previous November.

Fish cultural work was conducted
in thirty two Slates and the terri
torv of Alaska. Distributions oc-

THE FISH WE EAT

73

curred in every State and Territory
of the Union. The greater part of
the output is planted in public
waters, either on the initiative of
the Fish Commission or on the
recommendation of State authority,
although fishes adapted for ponds,
small lakes and minor interior
waters are usually consigned on in-
dividual application.

Fish cultural operations were con-
ducted during the year at fifty
permanent hatcheries and seventy-
six sub-hatcheries, auxiliaries and
egg-collecting stations. These va-
rious stations and sub-stations are
located along the Atlantic rivers for
salmons, trout, white perch and
yellow perch; the Pacific rivers for
salmons and steelhead trout; on the
Great Lakes for whitefish, cisco.
lake trout and pike perch; on
various interior waters for bass,
sunfish, carpies, trout, and on the
Atlantic Coast for cod, haddock, pol-
lock, flounder and lobster.

An important branch of the Bu-
reau of Fisheries operations is in
the rescue of young food fishes from
lakes and bayous formed by the
overflow of the Mississippi and Illi-
nois Rivers and their tributaries.
During 1915 operations of this char-
acter yielded 8,357,000 fish, which is
approximately 90 per cent of the
food fishes which would otherwise
have perished through drought or
"air drowning" when the overflow
dried up, or from cold later in the
year if not rescued.

The Bureau of Fisheries has six
railroad cars especially arranged
for the transportation of live fish
During the year ending June 30,
1915, the distribution of fish, eggs,
etc., by the bureau amounted to
536,260,143 eggs, 3,694,^81,699 fry
and 58.215,692 fingerlings, yearlings
and adults. These went to Fish
Commissions in twenty-eight differ
ent States, to waters needing stock,
from the controllers of which re-
quests had been made to the bureau,

and to private persons asking for
fish for streams, lakes or ponds.
While in special instances some fish
or eggs are sent by special messen-
ger, by far the greater part was sent
out by means of the bureau's special
fish and egg transportation cars.

The Bureau of Fisheries has been
investigating and encouraging wher-
ever possible the establishment of
the home fish ponds and in every
way possible places its accumulated
experience at the disposal of per-
sons interested in the establishment

THESE MEN WITH MILK CANS ACT
SUSPICIOUSLY, BUT THEY ARE ONLY
DEPOSITING FISH IN A STREAM

of fish ponds for the purpose of
supplying fish for the table. It is
impossible, adequately, to convey an
idea of the scope of operations of
the Bureau of Fisheries in the short
space available here Those inter-
ested should communicate with the
Commissioner of Fisheries, Bureau
of Fisheries, Department of Com-
merce, Washington, DC

A FOREST RANGER AT HIS FIRE LOOKOUT STATION IN THE TOP OF A YELLOW
PINE. MT. SHASTA IN THE BACKGROUND. A TELEPHONE AT THE FOOT OF
THE TREE CONNECTS WITH THE SUPERVISOR'S OFFICE

CHAPTEB V.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY

TIMBER SUPPLY

By RICHARDSON DAVENPORT

TIMBER standing in the United
States amounts to nearly
2,900,000,000,000 board feet, of
which three fourths (about 2,200,-
000,000,000 board feet) is privately
owned and 21 per cent (600,000,-
000,000) is conserved in national
forests. The remaining 4 per cent
is otherwise publicly owned by States
or municipalities.

Fire accounts for the animal de-
struction of 12,000,000,000 board

the original stand of timber in the
United States is calculated to have
been 5,200,000,000^000 feet, covering
800,000,000 acres. Nearly half the
country's timber is in the Pacific
Northwest, a fourth of it is in the
Southern Pine region, and the bal-
ance in the Lake region and scat-
tered in the Eastern States.

Most of the national forests are
in the mountains of the West, fol-
lowing in general the Rocky Mou"

The Trees of Future Forests

Sowing Tree Seeds

THE GOVERNMENT HAS 34,000,000 LITTLE TREES WHICH WILL BE USED TO PLANT
DENUDED AREAS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS

feet, and waste as much more.
Many saws waste as much as they
cut. and stumps, slashing and slabs
account for a tremendous loss. It
is probable, although not computable
accurately, that tires and waste use
more lumber than is cut yearly, a
statement borne out by the fact that

tains and Pacific Coast ranges from
Washington. Idaho and Montana to
southern California. Arizona and
New Mexico. A few are in Arkan-
sas. Florida, Nebraska. Michigan,
Minnesota. Alaska and Porto Pic...
states which have set aside forest
rcvoives of their own are California.

Copyright by Munn & <"<>., Inc.

7<;

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Connecticut, Indiana, Maryland.
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne-
sota. New Hampshire, New Jersey.
New York. Pennsylvania, South Da-
kota. Vermont and Wisconsin.

SHUT IN* LUMBER PRODUCTION

A careful comparison of computed

production for 1915 as against re-
ported production for 1914 reveals
changes which lumber cutting is

1915 LUMBER CUT BY SPECIES, WITH VALUE

K i n i) of Wood

Probable Total
Board Feet

Value, per M
Board Feet

Yellow Pine

Douglas fir

Oak

White pine

Hemlock

Spruce

Western yellow pine

Cypress

Maple

Red gum

Chestnut

"ill 1 1 iw poplar

Redwood

Cedar

Birch

Larch

Beech

Basswood

Elm

Ash

Cottonwood

Tupelo

White fir

Sugar pine

Balsam fir

Hickory

Walnut

Lodgepole pine ....

Sycamore

All other kinds

Total

,700,
,431,

.970,
.700,
,275,
,400,
.293
,100
900,
655
490
464,
420
420
415
375
360
260,
210
190
180,
170
125

000,000

249.000
000.000
000.000
000.000

III III, 11(111
985.000

000.000
000.000
000,000
000,000
000,000
294.000
000,000
000.000
000,000
000.000
000.000
000.000
000,000
000.000
000,000

IMS. 0(111

117,701,000

100
100
90,
26,
25,
49,

ooo.oi K)
000.000
000,000

JSfi.000

000,000
531.000

SI 2 .-,0

111 50

10 (III

Is on

13 oo
16.50
14.50

20 00

15 on
12 .",(>
16.00

22 50
13.50
15.50

16 50

11 .00

14 00

19 00
17.00

22.50

17 50
12.00

1 1 . 00

17.50

to
18.50
1 1.00

23 50

13.00
14.00

37,013,294,000

ANNUAL i I 1

Reliable but not absolutely accu-
rate figures Of lumber production
are furnished by the Forest Service
of the United stales government.
Based <>n the reports from 16,428
lumber mills, the 1915 cut is esti-
mated to have been 37,013,294,000
board feet, with a possible maximum
of 38,000,000,000 board feet. A
•board foot" is L2 by P_* by 1 inch.
Forty per cent of i oe cut was South-
ern yellow pine, three times the
amount of I >OUglas fir, second in
quantity cut. But three other

woods, oak. white pine and fir, were

cut in excess of 2,000,000,000 feet

ON THE FIRING LINE. FIGHTING
GROUND FIRE

FORESTS AND FORESTRY

77

t915 AND 1914 PRODUCTION OF LUMBER BY STATES REPORTED BY MILLS
CUTTING 50,000 AND OVER

States

Washington

Louisiana

Mississippi

North Carolina

Arkansas

Texas

Oregon

Alabama

Virginia

Wisconsin

California (incl. Nev.)

Florida

Michigan

Minnesota

West Virginia

Maine

Georgia

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

Tennessee

Idaho

Kentucky

New Hampshire

New York

Ohio

Missouri

Indiana

Montana

Vermont

Massachusetts

Oklahoma

Maryland

Illinois

Connecticut

Colorado

Arizona

New Mexico

New Jersey

Iowa

Delaware

South Dakota

Wyoming

Rhode Island

Utah

Kansas and Nebraska.

Totals .

Increase

Decrease
Per Cent

+

- 1
+

- 6
+
+12

- 7
+
+

-13
-14
+ 3

- 9
-16

- 1
+

- 2
+ 9
+ 14

- 9
+ 1

- 6
+ 3

- 2
+39

- 5
+17
+ 3
+ 4,
+74,
+ 14.
+ 1.
+66.
+ 9.
-22.

- 3.
+15.
-17.

+205.

- 2.
+27.
+46.

- 5.
+25.

1915

Computed

Total
Production

M ft.

3,950,000

3,900,000

2,300,000

2,090,000

1,800,000

1,750,000

1,690,000

1,500,000

1,500,000

1,210,000

1,130,000

1,110,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1,100,000

1 ,00(1, 00(1

1,000,000

950,000

800,000

800,000

777,000

560,000

500,000

475,000

400,000

350,000

350,000

328,000

260,000

250,000

230,000

165,000

110,000

90,000

79,500

75,915

65,787

40,000

35,000

25,000

23,000

17,400

15,000

10,892

37,013,294

1914
Reported

Production*

M ft,

3,946.189
3,956,434

2,280,966

2,227,854

1,796,780

1,554,005

1,817,875

1,494,732

1,488,070

1,391,001

1,318,065

1,073,821

1,214,435

1,312,230

1,118,480

992,594

1,026,191

804,710

701,540

885,035

763,508

596,392

482,744

486,195

286,063

370,571

298,571

317,842

249,608

143,094

200,594

162,097

66,227

81,883

102,117
78,667
57,167
48,748
11,443
25,517
18,744
11,852
15,902
8,680
790

37,340,023

'* Quinquennial census of manufacturers — custom mills excluded
** Mills reporting cut less than 50,000 each

producing in the location of prin-
cipal supplies. During the year
Washington rose from second place
to first in lumber production, Louisi-
ana dropped from first to second
place, Oregon fell from fifth place
to seventh, Florida climbed from
fifteenth place to twelfth and Minne-
sota dropped from eleventh place to
fourteenth.

LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES

The principal varieties of lumber
and the States in which they grow
are listed on page 80, the order of the
names of States being according to
their rank in growing the particular
variety of lumber under which they
are classified.

LATHS AM) SHINGLES

From the reports of mills and the

FORESTS AM) FORESTRY

total number of mills and their
capacity, a comparatively accurate
figure of total cut can be obtained.
But it is not possible accurately to
estimate what proportion of the out-
put of unreporting mills may he in
lath and shingles. Hence the fol-
lowing figures are confined strictly
to reports and are not estimates.
As the lath cut increased slightly
and the shingle cut decreased de-
cidedly since 1912, the last previous
year for which lath and shingle
figures are available, they are given
for comparison.

In 1915 mills reporting showed a
lath cut of 2.794.301.000 as against
2,719,163,000 in 1912. In 1915 mills
reporting showed a shingle cut of
8,483,579,000 against 12,037.685,000
in 1912.

Louisiana produced most laths in
1915. with 433,176.0<)0. forging ahead
of Washington, leader in 1912.
Washington produced most shingles

1915 XLMIUiK, CUT BY Sl'KCIES

.IONS BOARD FEET

COTTONWOOD

LODGEPOLE =>"
3VCAN10RE
ALL OTHERS

REGULATED VS. UNREGULATED CUTTING
The private lands are stripped, while the adjoining government forests are conserved

so

ill I! COrXTIJY AMI ITS UKSnl |;iT.S

in 1915. with a cut of 6,313,335,000,
more than fifteen times as many as
any other state, hut dropping by a
billion and a half under its figures
for 1912.

BOX MANUFACTURE

The largest users of lumber in the
United states, excluding builders
and millwrights utilizing lumber Cor
products used iii construction work,
are the box manufacturers. Statis-
tics for 1912 are the most recenl
ones available. According to these.
1,547,973,1S0 hoard feet are used
annually in the production of boxes,

and machines, growers of fruit, ber-
ries and vegetables. Crates are
used in Large quantities by shippers
of furniture, hardware, machinery
and stone: also for fruit

CROSSTIES

Railroads made a tremendous de-
mand on the lumber market for
crossties and poles. No more recent
statistics than those of 1010 are
available as to crossties. but in that
year nearly 149,000,000 ties were
used. Because a tie must be selected
for durability, spike-holding power,
resistance to mechanical wear and

LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES

Species

States Listed in Order of Rank

Yellow pine

1 >ouglas fir.
White pine .

Oak .

Hemlock ....
Western pine.

Spruce

< Jypress

Maple

Redwood.
Red gum

Larch and tamarack
Yellow poplar

< iedar

Birch

Sugar pine
Basswood

Beecb

Elm

< Jol tonwood

Louisiana Mississippi, Texas. North Carolina. Alabama,
Arkansas. Florida, Yirginia, Georgia, South Carolina,
Oklahoma

Washington, Oregon. California. Idaho. Montana

Minnesota, Idaho. Maine, New Hampshire, Wisconsin. Mass-
achusetts, Michigan

West Virginia, Kentucky. Tennessee. Arkansas Virginia,
Ohio. Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Missouri, Mississippi,
Indiana. Louisiana

Wisconsin. Michigan. Washington, Pennsylvania, West Yir-
ginia. New York. Maine. Oregon

California, Idaho. Oregon, Washington, Montana. Arizona,
New Mexico, Ne\ ada

Maine, Washington. New Hampshire, West Virginia, Vermont.
Oregon, New York, Minnesota. Massachusetts

Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Arkansas, Mis-
sissippi, Missouri

Michigan, Wisconsin

t California

Arkansas. Mississippi. Louisiana. South Carolina. Missouri.
Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky

Montana, Idaho, Minnesota. Wisconsin, Michigan. Wash-
ington, Oregon

w,st Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina,
Ohio

Washington, Idaho. California, Oregon

Wisconsin, Michigan

< California

Wisconsin. Michigan

Michigan, Indiana

Wisconsin. Michigan

Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana

crates and other containers. Sixty-
nine per cent of this amount is soft
wood and ::i hardwood. The total
amount in 1912 was IV, per cent of
the total cut.

Leading box consumers are manu-
facturers of oil. packing-house prod-
ucts, canned goods, groceries and
tobacco, clothing and dry goods, the
manufacturers of hardware, tinware

reasonableness of price, there are
but few woods which are chosen by
railroads. The principal ones and
their popularity by both steam and
electric roads are shown in the table
on page 82.

Pol I s

Railroads, trolley lines, telephone
and telegraph companies consume
large quantities of lumber yearly in

FORESTS AND FORESTRY

si

NATURAL IORi.br R.fc.LrI0NS OF NORTH AMERICA

82

<>IK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

< ROSSTIKS II K< II VSKD, RY CLASSES OF RAILROADS PURCHASING, AND

KINDS OF WOOD

] 9 1 0

Wood

All kinds ....

< >ak

Southern pine
I louglas fir . .
Chestnul

< !edar

Cypress

Tamarack
Western pine
Hemlock ....
Redwood

Gum

All other. . . .

Total

1 18,231,000

68,382,000

26,264,000

1 1,629,000

7,760,000

7,305,000

5,396,000

5,163,000

4,612,000

3,468,000

2,165.(10(1

1.621,000

4,466.000

Purchased

by steam
railroads

139
65

596,000
095,000

096. 000
919.00(1
2 HI. (It Ml
6:57,00(1

187,000
960,000

527. 000
442.000

501,000

621.000

392,000

Purchased
by electric
railroads

635,000
287,000
168,000
710,000

54 1.000
668,000
209.000
203,000
85.000

26.(10(1

664,000

74, i

25 30 35 40 AS 50 55 60 65

KINDS OF WOODS USED FOR RAILROAD CROSSTIES

purchase and use of polos. In 1011,
the most recent year for which polo
statistics have been gathered, 3,418,-
020 polos were bought by companies
needing them for immediate use.
Of this quantity cedar poles were
the most popular accounting for over
two million, with chestnut, oak, pine
.-Hid cypress following in the order
named. Poles under twenty feet
long were boughl to the number <>f
104,728 (largely for rural telegraph

and telephone lines) : poles between

twenty and thirty feet, the most
popular six.e. accounted for 1,861,816
of the total : bet ween thirty and
forty feet, 862,219; between forty
and fifty feet, 217,000, and over fifty

feel. 72,257.

wood PRESERVATION

The art of preserving wood has
advanced rapidly in recent years
and the long threatened wood famine

FORESTS AND FORESTRY

83

and tlio consequent higher prices
have led many large users of wood
exposed to weather and decay, not-
ably railroads and telegraph and
telephone companies, to experiment
seriously with processes which
would cut down expense by preven-
tion of decay. According to statis-
tics of the American Wood Pre-
servers' Association, gathered in co-
operation with the Forest Service,
in 1915, 102 wood preserving plants
treated 1 11,858,963 cubic feet of ma-
terial. The 1914 statistics on wood
preservation were based on reports
from ninety-four plants and showed
a total of 159,582,639 cubic feet
treated. Although the figures for
1915 are based on the output of
eight more plants than are those for
1914, the amount of wood treated
in 1915 was less by 17,723,676 cubic
feet, or 10 per cent.

A notable increase, amounting to
1,986,286 cubic feet, was recorded in
the amount of construction timber
treated during the year. The num-

ber of crossties subjected to treat-
ment in 1915 was 37,085,585, a re-
duction from 1914 figures of 6,761,-
402, while the quantity of paving
material was increased by over 300,-
000 square yards, or 11 per cent.
Less than half as many cross-arms
were treated in 1915 as in the pre-
vious year, and the quantity of piling
and miscellaneous timbers treated
fell below that reported in 1914 by
1,766,618 and 200,825 cubic feet, re-
spectively, a decrease of 21 per cent
and 14 per cent.

For the treatment of the 141,858,-
963 cubic feet of material reported
in 1915 33,269,604 pounds of zinc
chloride and 80,859,442 gallons of
creosote were required. In addition
3,205.563 gallons of paving oil and
1,693,544 gallons of miscellaneous
liquid preservatives were consumed.
In 1914 paving oil was reported
separately for the first time and
amounted to 9,429,444 gallons. In
1915 the treating plants reported
only 3.205.563 gallons of this heavier

LOCATING THE FIRE
A Forest Ranger is using liis compass and map to find out where the fire is

M

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

oil, or considerably loss than half
the 1914 consumption.

NATION AL FORESTS

The United States holds as na-
tional forests 155 separate areas in
the United states, aggregating 184,-
505,602 acres <>l" land, which includes,

preservation of the forests. Wood
is cut and sold, mines are worked.
water power is developed, sheep and
eattle are grazed on these lands as
on any others the difference being
that in the national forests all ac-
tivities are under permits and the
forests therefore under protection.

KANGER ON FIRE PATROL DUTY ON THE HIGHEST RIDGE OF THE CABINET
NATIONAL FOREST, MONTANA

however, 21,732,332 acres of pri
valelv owned land within national
foresl borders. The net amounl
owned by the United states govern-
inent is thus 162,773,280 acres of

land.

Contrary to the general Impres

-ion. this acreage is not a "reserve"

indeed, the name "forest reserve"

gave way to "national forest" to
correct that Impression. The na-
tional forests are protected from tire.
from over-cutting, from exploitation
indeed, hut they are made to serve
as large a population as possible
l>\ permitting their use in every
possible way consistent with the

CAUSES OF FOREST FLRES

FORESTS AND FORESTRY

Sf>

The most recent report of the for-
ester shows that the regular appro-
priation for 1914 for the Forest
Service of $5,662,094.13 was not suf-
ficient, and an emergency appropria-
tion had to be made largely on ac-
count of a very dry year and the
increased necessity for fire protec-
tion and fire fighting. The national
forests, however, returned to the
United States Treasury during the
fiscal year the sum of $2,481,469.35.

foregone to sell certain lumber at
cost; certain free grazing privileges
were worth in excess of $120,000,
and other privileges are believed to
have a market value of $100,000 a
year.

During the year 1,093,589,000
hoard feet of timber was sold. Forty
thousand and fifteen free-use timber-
cut permits were issued and 30.610
permits given for stock grazing.
One million six hundred and twenty-

WATKR POWER OX THK NATION" AL FORESTS, JUNE 30, 1915

Permits

Transmis-
sion lines
only

Power
Projects,
reservoirs,
conduits,
and power
houses

Estimated

average

output of

stream

at minimum

discharge

Permits in force on June 30, 1915:
Rental permits

92
16

19

73

462,039

Final

728,893

70,628

Total

108

84
13

182

00

48

1,261,560

Constructed or operating on June 30, 1915:

335,435

5,841

Total . .

97

1

108

15

11

341,276

Under construction June 30, 1915:

94,313

1,326

Total.

1

7
3

26

34

14

95,639

Construction not started on June 30, 1915:

761.184

63,401

Total

10

is

2

48

21
13

13

824,645

Applications received July 1, 1914, to
June 30, 1915:
Rental permits

Final

Total

20

47

These receipts came from timber,
$1,175,133.95 ; grazing, $1,130,495,
and special uses, $175,S40.40.

A much larger showing could be
made were it not for the generous
policy of the Government which per-
mits certain privileges free of
charge. During the year over $200,-
000 worth of timber was given away
free to settlers ; $33,000 of profit was

seven thousand three hundred and
twenty-one cattle, 96,933 horses,
2.792 hogs, 7,232,276 sheep and 51,-
409 goats were fed in national for-
ests during the year. Predatory
animals, including bears, coyotes,
mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats,
wolves and wolf pups were destroyed
to the number of 3,843, the number
indicating only the kill by forest

86

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

officers in connection with their
work.

Water power permits are shown
in the table on page 85.

Fires in national forests are
guarded against with every possible
care, but during the year 6,605 tires
occurred. Of these, 3.253 burned
less than a quarter of an acre be-
fore being extinguished, 1,807 burned
less than ten acres, 988 burned less
than .$100 worth though more than
ten acres in extent. 458 tires did
damage from *lon to $1,000 and 99
did damage in excess of ten acres
and si, 000.

A strict census of fire causes
shows 16.8 per cent caused by rail-
roads, 30.77 per cent by lightning,
Tin per cent by incendiarism, 9.02
per cent by badly controlled brush-
burning, 17. Oo per cent by careless

campers, 1.35 per cent by stationary
steam engines— sawmills, donkey en-
gines, etc. — and the balance of 17.89
per cent miscellaneous and unknown
causes.

The fires burned in 1914 225,979
timber acres. The open area affect-
ed was 153,686 acres, accounting for
a loss of timber burned or damaged
of 339,430,000 board feet. The loss
of money is estimated to be .$307,303
for the destroyed timber; reproduc-
tion destroyed. $192,408, and forage
loss, $2,803. The service expended
in fire ti^htinj;, outside of salaries of
regular officers, $685,790.

Note. — It is impossible to give
here minute details of all the activi-
ties of the Forest Service. Seekers
for more detailed information can
readily obtain it by writing to the
Forest Service. U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

CHAPTER VI.

RECLAMATION SERVICE

By CLAUDE WASHINGTON

IT is not generally understood
that the Reclamation Service of

the United States is primarily a
"home making" service, nor that it
does not compete with private enter-
prise. Such, nevertheless, are the
facts. Early irrigation in this coun-
try was entirely a matter of co-
operative effort or the result of in-
vestment by private or corporate
capital, and early laws to encourage
irrigation of arid lands all contem-
plated construction financed by other
than governmental money.

The increasing difficulty of carry-
ing out large projects led to the
passage of the reclamation act,
which enlists national funds for the
development of projects not feasible
by private or State enterprise.

The projects undertaken involved
expensive storage works, high diver-
sion dams, difficult tunnels, or long,
expensive canal work upon side hills,

where large investment was neces-
sary before any water was brought
to the land. Many projects dis-
cussed in the early days of reclama-
tion work were rejected by the
Reclamation Service because deemed
within the reach of private invest-
ment. Some of those same projects
were later taken up by the Govern-
ment after years of unsuccessful
effort to enlist private capital in
their construction. Practically all
of the projects undertaken by the
Reclamation Service had been aban-
doned after unsuccessful attempts to
finance them as private projects, or
else were new projects too difficult
to attract the attention of promoters.
Remarkable progress, since its be-
ginning in 1902, has been made by
the service, and at the present time
about 1,500,000 acres are under
ditches and crops are being produced
yearly on more than a million acres.

1909 Same Spot 1914

UMATILLA IRRIGATION PROJECT. OREGON

Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc.

ss

or It COIXTRY AND ITS resources

The a vera so gross return per acre
from these lands annually is about
.$25. Mure than 30,000 families have
been established in homes of their
own. Cities, towns and villages
have sprung up in these agricul-
tural communities. Railroads have
• ■Mended their branches, and a vast
region which a few years ago was
uninhabited and a desert has been
transformed into a prosperous farm-
ing country.

The table below shows the extent
of the work and the rate of progress
during a recent year.

82 miles of railroad. 2,554 miles of
telephone lines. 429 miles of power
transmission lines, and 1,068 build-
ings, such as power houses, pumping
stations, offices, residences, barns
and storehouses. The excavations
of rock and earth in all the work
amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards.

The projects now under way or
completed embrace approximately
3,000,000 acres of Irrigable land,
divided into 60,000 farms of from
10 to 160 acres each. I Miring the
year 1915 water was available from
Government ditches for 1,450,407

Items

To
June 30

1915

Tc
June 30

1914

Increase

Acres

Farms

Acres

Farms

1

Acres

Farms

Estimated area 29 projects on corn-

3,11S,011

1,450,407

461,632
626,371

60,603

29,017

10,122
13.008

2,921,165

1,343,193

416.64-4
566,843

58,323

27,115

8,559
12.416

196,846
107,214

44,988

59.528

2,280

Estimated area to which service was

prepared to supply water

Under contract —

1,902
1.563

592

Total

1,088,003

23.130

983,487

20,9751

104,516

2,155

Reservoir capacitv available, acre-
feet

6,500,360

5,460,510

1,039,850

A summation of the work to the
beginning of the present fiscal year
shows that the service has dug 9,592
miles of canals and ditches, and ex-
cavated 89 tunnels with an aggre-
gate length of more than 25 miles.
.Masonry, earth, crib and rock-lilled
dams have been erected with a total
volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards,
including the two highest dams in
the world. The available reservoir
capacity resulting is approximately
6,500,000 acre feet, or sullicicitt
water to cover the States of New
Jersey and Delaware to a depth of
12 inches. The service has built
4,622 bridges with a total length of
19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714
and are 36 miles in Length. There
are now in operation 298 miles of
pipe line and 85 miles of flumes.
The service has built 7M miles of
wagon road, much of it in what was
before inaccessible mountain regions ;

acres on !!'.». 017 farms, and the Gov-
ernment was under contract to sup-
ply water to 1,0SS,003 acres.

RESULTS OF RECLAMATION

The object of reclamation is home
making on arid lands — the conver-

tNTERSTATE CANAL. NORTH PLATTE
PROJECT. 150 MILES LONG

RECLAMATION SERVICE

S9

^^fZT2.

y -r 1

■_ ■•§*•

-jcr-5^

'

•FAT HEN'

IS AN APACHE AND HARD
WORKMAN

neering problems involved are those
of settlement and successful utiliza-
tion of the irrigation system and
water supply by the farmers. With-
out successful agricultural develop-
ment a project may be a failure,
regardless of the perfection of the
engineering work. The sufficiency
of the water supply and successful
operation of the irrigation system
are only incidental to the ultimate
object sought by the Government as
well as the irrigator and the success
of the undertaking is inseparably
connected with that of the water

IRRIGATION AND CROP RESULTS ON GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION

PROJECTS. 1914*

Irrigable
acreage

Irrigated
acreage

Cropped
acreage

Value of

Crops

Project

Total

Per aero
cropped

187,112
60,000
14,300
52,338

207,000

173,030

25,207

7,354

33,873

64,767
18,823

45,730

35,788

17,068

2,201

6,613

5,743

60,532

39,516

12,690

1,224

28,442

1,056

5.102

24,440

37,454

7,740

64,052
20,600
22,226

169.719

22,568

6,540

33,091

58,064
16,868

39,138

33,512

17,068

2,163

6,561

5,621

59,536

39,285

10,731

1,172

27,302

1 ,045

3,013

24,440

36,709

3,180

•49,273
15,920
20,905

$4,039,079
709,409
176,331
870,381

$23 . 80

31.43

26.99

Uncompahgre Valley

26.30

1,033,447
300,140

17.80

117,090

17.80

661,796
558,059
454,583

34,618
106,594

96,707
890,202
441,018
237,663

21,458
1,160,720

36,440

88,614
347,344
461,188
104,575

2,858,845
472,480
313.826

16 91

South side pumping unit. .

'28.808
13,440
16.346
36,250
91,504
52,039
20.261
1,«?4
40,000
12.239
17,000
38,000
68,852
10,099

81,807
34,000
41,166

16.65
26.63

Milk River

16 00

Sun River

Lower Yellowstone

North Platte

16.25
17.20
14 95

Tnickee-Carson

Carlsbad

11.23
22.15

18.31

42.51

North Dakota pumping. . . .
Umatilla

34.87
29.41

14.22

1 2 . 56

32.88

Yakima:

58.02
29.60

15.01

Total

1,240,875

761,271

703,424

16,475,517

23.50

* Exclusive of projects constructed for the Indian Sen ice.

sion of desert tracts into self-sup-
porting agricultural communities.
This object is not obtained by the
construction of irrigation works
alone, however elaborate or efficient
these may be in design and opera-
tion. More difficult than the engi-

To show progress in reclamation
work it is necessary to show the re-
sults obtained by the farmer as well
as those of the engineer. Reclama-
tion is measured not in engineering
units, but in homes and agricultural
values.

!«i

ni i; COUNTRY AND IIS RESOURCES

NUMBER AND SIZE OP FARMS AVAILABLE FOR ENTRY, AUGUST 1. I'M-;

State

Project

No. of

farms

1
Size of farms Water right

Idaho

Montana

Montana

Nebraska- W\ oming
South Dakota

Minidoka
Huntley
Sun River
North Platte
Belle Fourche

Shoshone
Truckee-Oarson

26
29
26
40
19
59

56

112

40 to 80 acres
40 acres
40 acres
40 to 80 acres
40 to 80 acres
40 to 80 acres

40 to 80 acres
40 to 80 acres

$30 per acre
$45 per acre*
st',0 per acre*
$36 per acre
$55 per acre
$40 per acre
fS50. $51 and
$52 per acre
$60 per acre

Nevada

For lands under the Huntley project there is an additional charge of $4.00 ] er
acre for the land, of which $1.00 is payable at the time of entry and the remainder in
four equal annual instalments. For information concerning these projects and method
of obtaining land under them, or any additional statistics not covered in this brief chapter,
write to Statistician, Reclamation Service, Interior Department, Washington, D. C.

The table on page 89, therefore, is
even more illuminative of the suc-
cess of the work than any engineer-
ing statistics alone can possibly be.

By no means all available In nds
embraced in the various projects is
taken up, and every effort is being

made by the service to see that they
are properly and successfully set-
tled. The table above shows the
number of farms available for
entry, August 1. 1916, the size of
the farm units and the cost of water
right.

- !|ftigi

:^:.t\

FARM HOUSES ON THE SALT RIVER PROJECT. SHOWING IRRIGATING
DITCH FLOODING ALFALFA

RECLAMATION SERVICE

91

POWEB DEVELOPMENT

Iii connection with the construc-
tion of irrigation work, particularly
of dams on the larger rivers, it lias
been necessary to develop power.
Power plants are operated princi-
pally for pumping water for irriga-
tion; incidentally for other purposes,
the excess power being sold for do-
mestic or industrial uses, such as
lighting, heating, cooking and opera-
tion of machinery. Pumping forms
the principal use of the electric
power development, and there were
installed 10,432 horse-power in per-

hours is 66,100,624, and the cost per
kilowatt hour ranges from 3.82 cents
at the North Dakota Williston plant
down to 0.111 cent at the Minidoka
plant.

The developed power not needed
for irrigation pumping is sold to
customers for construction, for camp
lights and for drainage work and
results in a gross income of $249,174
from power sales, which is almost
10 per cent on cost of installation.

But all these figures fade into in-
significance when consideration is
had of the accompanying table show -

UNDEVELOPED HORSE-POWER

Project

Name of plant

Head,
Feet

Arizona-California, Yuma

Arizona-California, Yuma

California

Colorado, Grand Valley

Colorado, Uncompahgre

Idaho, Boise

Idaho, Boise

Idaho-Minidoka

Montana, Flathead (Indian)

Montana, Flathead (Indian)

Montana, Huntley

Montana-North Dakota, Lower Yel

lowstone

Nevada, Truck ee-C arson

Nevada, Truckee-Carson

New Mexico-Texas, Rio Grande. . .

Oregon-California, Klamath

Oregon, Umatilla

Utah, Strawberry Valley

"Washington, Okanogan

Washington, Yakima, Sunnyside

Unit

Washington, Yakima, Tieton Unit
Washington, Wapato

Total.

Drop, California Canal
Araz

Main Canal

Arrowrock Dam
Drops in canals
Minidoka Dam
Flathead ttiver
Revais Creek
Main Canal Drop

Lateral KK drop
Lahontan
26-foot drop
Elephant Butte Dam
Various sites
Drainage outfall
Spanish Fork
Salmon Creek

Drops in canal

9
25

27
44

63-180

20-90

46

60

1,000-

34

120

26

60-190

22-88

28

125

441

20-88

Horse
power

1,000

7,700

483

3,600

10,000

17,000

4,800

10,000

360,000

26,000

314

290
5,000
2,000
12,000
9,700
145
1,900
2,800

1,800

3,250
9,000

488,782

manent pumping plants used in
1914, in addition to numerous small
drainage installations semi-portable
and intermittently used. The cost
of raising 1 acre-foot 1 foot ranges
from 0.368 cent to 2.10 cents.

The capacity of all the power
plants operated by the service was,
in 1014. 27,134 kilowatts from 37
units. The water head ranges from
226 feet at the Roosevelt plant to
21 feet at the Arizona Falls plant.
The total cost of all the plants was
$2,542,159. The output in kilowatt

ing available horse-power snb.je.-i to
development but not yet developed.

FINANCES

At the beginning of a recent fiscal
year the service had $1,401,714.07
cash on hand.

During the year this amount was
augmented by receipts from various
sources to a grand total of $16,-
446.794.66.

Of the twenty millions authorized
by the act of June 25, 1!»1(), eight
and one half millions were trans-
ferred to the reclamation fund. '

92

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

BOISE IRRIGATION PROJECT, IDAHO. HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD, 351 EEET
EROM BED ROCK TO PARAPET, 1,060 FEET LONG ON TOP

Cash expenditures during the
fiscal year were $14,213,172.90.

Town-site receipts transferred to
the credit of projects were $18,-
436.28.

The balance on hand at the close
of the fiscal year amounted to
$2,215,185.48.

By the processes <>f the General
Land Office and the Treasury De
partment the receipts from sales of
public lands are held in the Treas-
ury from six to nine months before
they are placed to the credit of the
reclamation fund. Estimated re-
ceipts from the sale of public lands

ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED WORK OX ALL PROJECTS DURIXO.

FISCAL YEAR, 1916

Examination and surveys $151,680 -^5

Storage Bystems 1,695,052 95

Pumping for irrigation 7.500 on

Canal systems 2,548,004.33

Lateral systems. 1 .'.KM), '.I'll .73

I drainage systems 938,62 t .50

Flood protection 286,175.00

Power systems 77,072 i">

'•'arm units .' 5gjo p; in

Permanent, improvements and lauds 1 ">.r>,t"i.s;i . 40

Telephone systems 29, 137.00

( tperal ion and maintenance:

1 hiring construction $1,053,973 1 1

Under public- notice 838,405 00

1.S02.37S.41

Stores and other opera I ions 692,100.00

Unallotted to features 680,456.65

Total $11,113,902.67

RECLAMATION SERVICE

93

in the hands of the Treasury Depart-
ment on June 30, 1915, which had
not been credited to the reclamation
fund amounted to approximately
$1,670,000.

The reclamation fund, which com-
prises the moneys received from the
sale of public lands, has now reached
the total of $85,914,493.36, and from
the sale of town-sites, $280,723.94.

Transfer vouchers, adjusting ac-
counts between the projects for the
transfer of the value of services
and equipment, amounted to $615,-
657.5S during the fiscal year 1915.
Since the beginning of the service
the value of the transfers of sup-
plies, materials, equipment and
services between projects has

amounted to $5,000,759.37. This
system of transfers between projects
enables the service to utilize equip-
ment, materials, supplies, etc., to
their fullest extent where needed
and to charge the cost where the
benefit accrues.

ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED
WOKK

It is estimated that during 1916
the sum of $11,113,902.07 will be ex-
pended. The table on page 92 gives
the tentative distribution of this
amount to the various functional
features of all projects, including
the Blackfeet, Flathead and Fort
Peck Indian projects.

K00SEVELT DAM, ARIZONA

Fountain Geyser Old Faithful

Haynes Photo Upper Geyser Basin

Giant Geyser Haynes Photo

GEYSEBS IN THE YELLOWSTONE

CHAPTEK VII.

OUR NATIONAL PARKS

HOW many Americans can say
offhand how many national
parks we have? How many
can name the national monuments,
or explain the difference between a
national park and a national monu-
ment?

Very few ! And such almost
wholesale ignorance is one of many
reasons why a Bureau of National
Parks, as a part of the Interior De-
partment, has for many years been
a vital necessity and why every
loyal American, whether he ever sees
a national park or not, should re-
joice that Congress has finally pass-
ed the National Parks Service Bill.
This bill, far reaching in import,
reads in part as follows :

"Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Con-
gress assembled, That there is here-
by created in the Department of the
Interior a service to be called the
National Park Service, which shall
be under the charge of a director,
who shall be appointed by the Sec-
retary. . . . The service thus es-
tablished shall promote and regu-
late the use of the Federal areas
known as national parks, monuments
and reservations, which purpose is
to conserve the scenery and the nat-
ural and historic objects and the
wild life therein and to provide for
the enjoyment of the same in such
manner and by such means as will
leave them unimpaired for the en-
joyment of future generations."

As yet the service is but a name,
for the Sixty-fourth Congress has
not yet provided an appropriation

to form the service. But everything
is ready and as soon as the money
is available our numerous parks and
monuments will have the service of
their own they have so long needed.
There are sixteen national parks
at present in existence, the first of

Photo by Lindley Eddy

SEQUOIA "GENERAL SHERMAN'
Oldest Tree iu the World

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

96

OVR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

National Parks

in order of

creation

Hot Springs, 1832.

Yellowstone, 1 872 .

Yosemite, 1890.

Sequoia, 1890

General Grant, L890

Casa Grande Ruin. 1892
Mount Rainier, L899.

Crater Lake, 1902

Wind Cave, 1983
Sullys Hill, 1904.
Mesa Vcnle, 190G

Piatt, L906

Glacier, 1910. . . .

Rocky Mountain. I 9 1 5,

Hawaiian. 1916

I laasen, L916

Location

Middle
Arkansas

North-
western
Wyoming

Middle-
eastern
California

Middle-
eastern
California

Middle-
eastern
California

Arizona
West-
central
Washington

South-
western

< Iregon

South
I »ako1 a
North
l >akol a
South-
western

< 'olorado
Soul hern

< Oklahoma

North-
western
Montana

North

middle-
( 'olorado
Hawaiian

Islands
< 'alifo. nia

Area in
square
miles

iy2

3,348

1 . 1 _'.-»

C'4

1 ,53 1

56
106

Distinct! e < h u isten ;l loa

Hi hot springs possessing curative prop-
erties. Many hotels and boarding
houses. 20 hath houses under public
control.

More geysers than rest of the world.
Boiling springs. Mud volcanoes.
Petrified forests. Grand Canyon of
the Yellowstone, remarkable for gor-
geous coloring. Large lakes. Many
large streams and waterfalls. Vast
wilderness inhabited by deer, elk,
bison, moose, antelope, bear, moun-
tain sheep, beaver, etc., constituting
greatest wild bird and animal pre-
serve in world. Altitude 0,000 to
11,000 feet. Exceptional trout fish-
ing.

Valley of world-famed beauty. Lofty
cliffs. Waterfalls of extraordinary
height. 3 groves of big trees. High
sierra. Large areas of snowy peaks.
Waterwheel falls. Good trout fish-
ing.

rhe Big Tree national park. 12,000
sequoia trees over 10 feet in diameter.
some 25 to 36 feet in diameter. Tow-
ering mountain ranges. Startling
precipices, bine trout fishing.

Created to preserve the celebrated
General Grant tree, 35 feel in diam-
eter. 0 miles from Sequoia National
Park and under same manage nent.

Prehistoric Indian ruin.

Largest accessible single pea'; glacier
system. 2S glaciers, some of large
size, fifty to five hundred feet thick.
Wonderful sub-alpine wild Bower
fields.

Lake of extraordinary blue in crate- of
extinct volcano, no inlet, qo outlet,
sides l.ooo feet hi^n. Interesting
lava formations. Fine trout fishing.

Large natural cavern.

Wooded hilly tract on Devil's Lake.

Most notable and besl preserved pre-
historic cliif dwellings in United
states, if not in the world.

Many sulphur and other springs pos-
sessing medicinal \alue, under Gov-
ernment regulation.

Rugged mountain region of Alpine
character. L>.">0 gla-ier-1'ed lakes, til)
small gladers. Peaks of unusual
shape. Precipices thousands of reel
deep Scenery of marked individ-
uality. Fine trout lis.iing.

Heart of the Rockies. Sn.iwy range,
peaks n. 000 to 14,250 feel altitude.
Remarkable records of glacial period.

Three volcanoes. Lake of blazing lava.
Tropical forests.

Volcano -only one in I'nited States
potential!} active.

NATIONAL PARKS

97

which was Hot Springs, in Arkansas,
created in 1832; the most recent,
Hawaii National Park and Lassen
National Park, being creations of
the Sixty-fourth Congress, the bills
for the two parks being approved
August 1 and 9, 1916, respectively.

The first purposes of the parks are
the preservation of scenic beauty
and natural wonders for educational
and recreation purposes. They make
wonders of certain regions free to
all the country ; indeed, to all the
world.

Though Hot Springs was the first
of all the parks, it was the creation
of the Yellowstone National Park
in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho,
by the act of March 1, 1872, which
really marked the beginning of a
policy on the part of Congress of
setting aside tracts of land as recre-
ation grounds for all the people.

More and more are we coming to
know what we possess in these parks
and the war abroad taught us afresh
that Europe has nothing in scenery
more worth seeing than what we
have at home. In the Yellowstone
National Park there were 20,250 vis-
itors in 1914, and in 1915 two and
one-half times as many, 51,895.
Yosemite National Park in Cali-
fornia had 33,452 visitors during the
1915 season, whereas in 1914 only
15,145 persons visited the park.
Again, in Mount Rainier National
Park, Washington, there has been an
increase in the number of visitors

of over 100 per cent— 35,100 in 1915
as against 15,038 in 1914.

But it has been discovered that
national parks have a distinct com-
mercial value, as well as an educa-
tional and recreative one. The parks
produce an ever increasing revenue
from tourist traffic, one of the most
satisfactory means of revenue a na-
tion can have. The tourist leaves
large sums of money lint takes away
nothing which makes the nation
poorer. He goes away with im-
proved health, with a recollection of
enjoyment of unequaled wonders of
mountain, forest, stream and sky, of
vitalizing ozone and stimulating
companionship with nature; but of
the natural wealth he takes nothing.

The commercial potentialities of
tourist traffic are startling. It is
estimated that in time of peace
Switzerland's annual revenue from
tourists is .$150,000,000, that of
France $000,000,000; little Italy's,
$100,000,000. It is claimed that Amer-
icans have spent $500,000,000 a year
in travel abroad. The pine woods of
Maine are estimated to bring a rev-
enue of $40,000,000 each year on ac-
count of the visitors they attract,
and the orange blossoms of Florida
are worth more to her than the
products of her soil. Every dollar,
therefore, which is spent by the na-
tion on national parks may be con-
sidered an investment which is like-
ly to bring in a very satisfactory re-
turn upon the money invested.

VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS, 1908 TO

1915

Name of Park

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

Yellowstone National

19,542

S.S50

1,251

1,773

3,511

80

5,275

3,171

26,000

250

32,545

13,182

854

798

5,968

165

4,171

3,216

25,000

190

19,575

13,619

2,407

1,17S

8,000

250

5,000

3.387

25,000

190

120,000

23,054

12,530

3,114

2,160

10,306

206

4,500

3,887

30,000

200

130,000

4,000

22,970

10,884

2,923

2,240

8,946

230

5,235

3,199

31,000

200

135,000

6,257

24,929

13,735

3,823

2,756

13,501

280

6,253

3,988

35,000

300

135,000

12,138

20,250
15,145

4,667

3,735

15,038

502

7,096

3,592

30,000

500

125,000

14,168

51,895
33,452

7,647

General Grant National

Mount Rainier National

Mesa Verde National

Crater Lake National

Wind Cave National

Piatt National

Sullys Hill National

10,523

35,166

663

11,371

2,817

20,000
1,000

115,000

14,265

31.000

NATIONAL PARKS 99

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF TOURIST TRAVEL TO NATIONAL PARKS

Park

Yellowstone:

1912

1913

1914

1915

Yosemite:

1912

1913

1914

1915

Mount Rainier

1912

1913

1914

1915

Glacier:

1912

1913

1914

1915

Number
of visitors
(seasons)

970
929
250
895

884
735
145
452

940
501
03S
160

257

1 3S
168
,205

Estimated
gross receipts
by concession-
aires (seasons)

$1,067,161.34

1,186,811.36

848,688.44

2,003,072.35

311,444.32
359,481.45
334,914.32
629,929.31

56,735.92

66,942.76

61,078.08

138,120.23

161,510.87
155,716.14
276,611.54

Federal

appropriations

(fiscal

years)

$8,500 . 00
8,500 . 00
8,500 00
8,500.00

50,000 . 00

80,000 . 00

125,000.00

100,000 00

5,400.00
20,000.00
23,400.00
51,000.00

69,200.00

75,000.00

100,000.00

75,000 . 00

Revenues

(fiscal
years

$16,476.38

21,980.10
15,439.23
20,307 40

23,855.77
19,495.83
23,400 1 t
37,019 20

5,370.36

7,301.62

9,040.10

12,893.29

1,490.94
4,652.14
4,010.71
4,218.51

That this is not a mere specula-
tion is shown in the table above,
totaling the economic value of tour-
ist travel to Yellowstone, Yosemite,
Glacier and Mount Rainier national
parks during the past four years*,
together with the revenues.

The national parks cover an area
of more than 4,700,000 acres. If all
were put together it would mean an
area of more than 7,300 square miles,
practically as large as New Jersey.
The Yellowstone National Park, con-
taining more than 3,300 square miles,
is as big as many of the independent
European principalities that warred
with each other for centuries before
the genius of Bismarck united them
into a great empire.

Such a group of scenic areas, de-
veloped and handled after the fash-
ion of Switzerland, would constitute
a national economic asset of incal-
culable value.

It is not for their educational, re-
creative, or economic value alone,
however, that the national parks
must be regarded. The conservation
of wild life is a feature not to be
despised. Free as most of the parks
are from public lumbering and pri-
vate grazing enterprises, and pro-
tected from hunting of any kind.

they have the conditions essential
for the protection and propagation of
wild animal life. Eventually they
will become great public nature
schools to which teachers and stu-
dents of animal life will repair
yearly for investigation and study.

The enormous increase of wild
animals in the Yellowstone since it
became a national park in 1S72
points the way. Deer, elk. moose,
bison and antelope here abound in
greater numbers, no doubt, than be-
fore the days of the white man;
and many of them have become al-
most as fearless of man as animals
in captivity. From here many State,
county and city parks have been
supplied, under proper restrictions,
with surplus animals for propaga-
tion purposes. When interfering
private holdings are extinguished in
other national parks, and United
States laws made to supersede State
laws (a condition the newly author-
ized Park Service will strive to bring
about), these, too. will become cen-
ters of animal preservation as effec-
tive as the Yellowstone.

By an act approved June 8, 190G.
entitled "An act for the preserva-
tion of American antiquities," the
President of the United States is

100

OUR COUNTRY AND lis RESOURCES

VALLEY OF ENCHANTMENT. NEAR THE CREST OF THE SIERRA NEVADAS,
YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK

NATIONAL PARKS

mi

authorized, "in his discretion, to de-
clare by public proclamation historic
landmarks, historic and prehistoric
structures, and other objects of his-
toric or scientific interest, that are
situated upon the lands owned or
controlled by the Government of the

United States, to be national monu-
ments."

There are now thirty such national
monuments, two which did exist hav-
ing been eliminated with the crea-
tion uf Lassen National Park.

NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED BY INTERIOR DEPARTMENT

Name

Devil's Tower

Montezuma Castle

El Morro

Ohaco Canyon

Muir Woods

Pinnacles

Tumacacori

Mukuntuweap

Shoshone Cavern

Natural Bridges

Gran Quivira

Sitka

Rainbow Bridge

Lewis and Clark Cavern

Colorado

Petrified Forest

Navajo

Papago Saguaro

Dinosaur

Sieur de Monts

Wyoming

Arizona

New Mexico

New Mexico

California

California

Arizona

Utah

Wyoming

Utah

New Mexico

Alaska

Utah

Montana

Colorado

Arizona

Arizona

Arizona

Utah

Maine

Date

Area

Acres

Sept. 24.

1906

1.152

Dec. 8,

1906

160

Dec. 8,

1906

160

Mar. 11,

1907

20,629

Jan. 9,

1908

295

Jan. 16,

1<)0S

2,0^0

Sept. 15,

1908

10

July 31.

1909

15,840

Sept. 21,

1909

210

Sept. 25,

1909

2,740

Nov. 1,

1909

160

Mar. 23,

1910

57

May 30

1910

160

May 16

1911

160

May 24

1911

13,883

July 31

1911

25,625

Mai. 14

1912

360

Jan. 31

1914

2.050

Oct. 4

1915

80

July 8

1916

5,000

ADMINISTERED BY AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT

Name

Gila Cliff Dwellin s

Tonto

Grand Canyon

Jewel Caves

Wheeler

Oregon Caves

Devil Postpile

Mount Olympus. . .

New Mexico

Arizona

Arizona

South Dakota

Colorado

Oregon

California

Washington

Nov. 16, 1907
Dec. 19, 1907
Jan. 11,
Feb. 7,
Dec. 7,
July 12, 1909
July 6, 1911
April 17, 1912

1908
1908

1908

Area

Acres

160

640

806,400

1,280

300

480

800

299,370

ADMINISTERED BY WAR DEPARTMENT

N A V V.

Big Hole Battle Field .
Cabrillo

State

Montana
California

June 23, 1910
Oct. 14, 1913

Area

Acres
5
1

Jar

Great Falls of the Yellowstone
Cleopatra Terrace

Golden Gate
Eagle Rest Rock

SOME OF THE ?rLENI)OK8 OF OUR NATIONAL PARKS

CHAPTER VIII.
GOOD ROADS AND BAD

THERE are 2,273,131 miles of
public roads in the United
States. Of these. 10.9 per cent
(a total of 247.490 miles) are sur-
faced roads — roads other and pre-

next with 51.7, followed by Indiana,
42.3, Ohio o-',.*. New Jersey 30.3 and
New York 27.0 per cent.

Nebraska is at the fool of the
list with a percentage of 0.3, rep-

THE SLOUGH OF DESPOND

LIFE AND PLEASURE IN GOOD ROADS

sumably better than mere cuttings
in the dirt.

Rhode Island leads all the Union
in good roads, with a percentage of
5S.S per cent. Massachusetts comes

resenting 250 miles of surfaced reads
out of a total of 80,338. other back-
ward States are Nevada. 0.5 per
cent, Montana <>.4 per cent, and
Kansas 1 per cent.

THE BURDEN OF BAD ROADS

EASY HAULAGE

Copyright by Munn Sc Co., Inc.

104

OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

POOR ROADS— FARM TO RAILROAD-
COSTLY WAY

GOOD ROADS— FARM TO RAILROAD
CHEAP WAY

Ohio has the greatesl good road
mileage, with 28,312, Nevada the
least, with G5 miles. Texas has the
greatest total mileage with 128,971,
Klu.de Island the least with 2,121.

During the past twenty years
State governments have heen active
in a constantly increasing measure
in behalf of road improvement. To
January 1, 1915, expenditures aggre-
gating $211,859,163 had heen made
from the appropriations by the legis-
latures of 39 States. With these
funds improved roads to the extent
of 35, 177 miles have heen construct-
ed during this period of twenty
years at an average expenditure of
$5,970 per mile. Yet we have not
good roads — and we are paying the
price. We pay in money, in lives,
in Ignorance, in labor, in taxes, and
in high COSl of living.

Considering only a few phases of
the subject, the investigator is
struck with the universal effect of
good roads.

Data obtained from the Twelfth
Census, compared with the road
statistics, show clearly the relation-
ship between illiteracy and bad
roads. Many factors contribute to
produce illiteracy, but it is signifi-
cant that where one is found, there
is usually the other. In Arkansas.
Missouri, Mississippi and North
Carolina, where less than - per cent
of the roads are improved, there
were 374,7ns native born white il-
literates in 1000. out of a total pop-
ulation of 7,800,000, whereas in
Massachusetts, Connecticut. New
Jersey and Rhode Island, where 30
per cent of the roads are improved.
there were only 20,500 native born

A ROAD BEFORE IMPROVEMENT

THE SAME ROAD AFTER IMPROVE-

MENT-CLAY AND GRAVEL

CONSTRUCTION

GOOD ROADS AND P.AD

10:

LIMIT OF TWO-HORSE TEAM OVER TWELVE BALES OF COTTON ON A
BAD ROAD-TWO BALES OF COTTON MACADAM ROAD

ESTIMATED 1015 COST OF MARKETING SIX OF THE MORE
IMPORTANT CROPS

Crop

U.S.

Production

1915

Wt.
per
unit

Production

Pro-
por-
tion
over
roads

Tonnage
over
Roads

Aver-
age
haul

Ton
Mileage

Cost

per

T. M.

Total

Hauling

Cost

Corn

Wheat. ...

Oats

Potatoes.. .
Cotton. . . .
Hay

Bus.
3,054,535,000
1,011,505,000

1,540,362,000

4:;:;,:!'.>.s.

11,161.000
85,225,000

Lbs.
70
60
35
60
1,500
2,000

Tuns

106,908,690
30,345,150
26,956,335
13,001,940
8,370,750
85,225,000

.144
1.00

.28

.75
1.00

.17

Tons
15,394,851
30,345,150

7.547,774
9,751,455
8,370,750
14,488,250

Miles
7.4
9 4
7.3
8.2

11.1
8.3

Ton Miles
113,921,897
285,244,410
55,098,749
79,961,931
92,915,325
120,252,475

.19
.19
.19
.22
.28
.19

$21,645,159
54,196.438
10,468,762
17,591,625
26,016,291
22,847,969

Totals...

270,807,865

85,898,230

747,394,787

8152,766,244

white illiterates in 1900, out of a
total population of 6,025,000.

Tin- cost of poor roads is a ter-
rific item in high cost of living. It
costs more to ship a ton of cotton
from farm to railroad than from
New York to London, as is plainly

shown for six great shippings in the
table above.

Of the 3,114,300 autos in the world
this country possesses 2,400,000 —
more than one for every mile of
road. In 1916, L,200,000 more will
be manufactured. Imagine the cost

SMALL ROAD TAX-NO SAVING FAIR ROAD TAX-NO LOSSES

GOOD ROADS AND BAD

107

POOR ROAD— TIME IS
DELAY

MONEY— A

GOOD ROAD— TIME IS MONEY— THEY
GOT THERE

iii depreciation of these cars due to
poor roads. If the cars average
$500 each in value, and bad roads
cost 10 per cent depreciation, these
scrapped cars, due to poor roads,
cost the United States $120,000,000
per year, more than half what has
been spent on good roads in twenty
years !

Now the Federal Government has
taken hold of the problem and the
sum of $85,000,000 of Federal funds
was made available for constructing
rural roads by the Federal Aid Road
Bill, which became a law July 11,
1916. For the construction of rural
post roads under co-operative ar-
rangements with the highway
departments of the various States,
$75,000,000 is to be spent, the re-
maining $10,000,000 being for roads
and trails within National forests.
The Federal Government's share in

co-operation with the States is to
be 50 per cent of the cost.

Five million dollars is available
for expenditure before June 30, 1917.
Appropriations increase at the rate
of five millions a year until 1921,
when twenty-five millions is provid-
ed, making a total of seventy-five
millions. One million dollars a year
for ten years is for the development
of roads and trails within National
forests. The class of roads to be
built and the method of construction
are to be mutually agreed upon by
the Secretary of Agriculture and the
State highway departments.

The Act provides that the Secre-
tary of Agriculture shall apportion
the appropriation in the following
manner :

One-third in the ratio the area of
each State bears to the total area of
all the States;

SCHOOL CHILDREN ON BAD ROAD

THE KIND OF SCHOOL AND ROAD
EVERY BOY AND GIRL IS
ENTITLED TO

108

Dili COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

One-third in the ratio the popula-
tion of each State bears to the total
population of .-ill the States;

One-third in the ratio the mileage
of rural delivery routes and star
routes in cadi State hears to the
total mileage of rural delivery
routes and star routes in all the
States.

States securing Federal aid must
make needed repairs and maintain
a reasonably smooth surface, hut are
not obliged to make extraordinary
repairs or undertake reconstruction.

A TRACTOR ROAD GRADER

The Secretary of Agriculture,
July 21, 1916, certified to the Sec-
retary of the Treasury and the gov-
ernors and State highway depart-
ments of the several states the ap-
portionment Of the first $5,000,1

Ill accordance with the Act, .*! per
cent, or $150,000, needed for ad-
ministration was deducted. The
several States are eligible for the
following amounts :

Alabama $104,ms.9O

A i izona 68,513.52

Arkansas 82,689 10

( California 151,063 '.il>

Colorado 83,690 1 i

Connecticut 31,090.44

Delaware 8,184.37

Florida 55,976 27

Georgia 134,329.48

Idaho 60, 163 50

Illinois 220,926.23

Indiana 135,747 62

Iowa 14fi.175.60

Kansas 143,207. 10

Kentucky '.17,171 .91

Louisiana 67.17 1 66

Maine 18,451.50

Maryland 14,047 22

Massachusetts 73,850.95

Michigan l 15,783 72

Minnesota l 12,394 or,

Mississippi 88,905 84

Missouri 169,720 11

Moniana 98,28^ 19

Nebraska 106,770.81

Nevada 64,398 30

\'i u Hampshire 20,996.62

New Jersey 59,212.68

\c\\ Mexico 78,737.81

\ru ^ ork 250,720.27

North Carolina II I. .'.si .92

North Dakota 76,1 13 06

< >hio 186,905. 12

Oklahoma 1 15,139.00

< >regon 1 8,687.37

Pennsylvania 23().ni 1.17

Rhode Island I 1,665.71

South Carolina 71,807 64

South Dakota 80,946.02

Tennessee 114,153 Is

Texas 291 ,927 . 81

Utah 56,950.15

Vermont 22,84 1 17

Virginia 99,660 7s

Washington 71,884.25

West Virgini i 53,270 1 1

Wisconsin 1 28,361 82

Wyoming 61,196 n7

Total S4, Sod, ono oo

HAULING 22>2 YARDS OF CRUSHED ROCK

CHAPTER IX.

THE PANAMA CANAL

OX May 4, 1004, the United
States took possession of a
narrow strip of lancL,ten miles
wide, crossing the Isthmus of Pan-
ama, called the Canal Zone. On
August 15, 1014, the Panama Canal
was opened to commerce. Between
these two dates lie all the wonder
of the construction of the greatest
engineering feat of all time.

But that story has been told and
retold. What concerns us now is
what the canal accomplishes, how it
does its work, what it costs — what
it is worth.

DISTANCES

The distance by water around
South America is 10,500 nautical
miles from Colon (Atlantic) to Bal-
boa (Pacific). By canal the dis-
tance between the same two points
is 44 miles.

The difference in length of these
routes, 10,450 miles, represents the
maximum distance that can be
saved to a vessel by use of the
canal.

So far in the use of the canal,
over 40 per cent of the vessels which
have passed through it have been
engaged in the coastwise trade of
the United States — each of them sav-
ing about 7,800 miles on each trip.
If their average speed be taken at
ten knots, they have averaged a
saving of over a month at sea
on each voyage from coast to
coast. Where formerly the round
trip of a ten-knot vessel required
about fifty-five days' actual steam-
ing, the time at sea for the same

trip for the same vessel is now
reduced to about twenty-two days.

SPEED

The transit of the canal requires
about 10 hours, of which approxi-
mately 3 hours are spent in the
locks. In the sea-level channels and
Gaillard (formerly "Culebra") Cut.
speed is limited to G knots; through
Gatun Lake they may make 10, 12,

Photo Underwood & Underwood

STEAMSHIP "ALLIANCE." FIRST OCEAN-
GOING VESSEL TO PASS THROUGH
THE PANAMA CANAL, JUNE 8, 1914

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

110

(il i; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

and 15 knots, according to the width
of the channel.

Bandling a vessel through the
canal is essentially the same as in
any charted channel. The canal
channel is accurately charted, fully
equipped with aids t<> navigation,
and governed by rules which the
pilot, cue of whom must be on any
vessel going through, enforces.

LOCKING THROUGH

As a vessel approaches the locks,
the operator at the control house
indicates by an electrically operated
signal if the vessel shall enter Un-
locks, on which side, or if it shall
keep back, or moor alongside the ap-
proach wall. If everything is ready
for the transit of the locks, the
vessel approaches the center ap-
proach wall, a pier extending a
thousand feet, and connections are
made with the electric towing loco-
motive.

The vessel then moves forward
slowly until it is in the entrance
chamber, when lines are thrown out
on the other side and connections
are made with towing locomotives
on the side wall, six for the larger
vessels, three on each wall of the
lock chamber. Two keep forward of
the vessel, holding her head to the
center of the chamber; two aft,
holding the vessel in check: and two
slightly forward of amidships, which
do most of the towing. The loco-
motives are secured against slip-

Photo Underwood & Underwood

BLOWING UP A DIKE ON THE PANAMA
CANAL

ping by cogs in a rack. They are
equipped with a towing windlass,
which allows the prompt paying out
and taking in of hawser.

The water within the lock cham-
ber proper, beyond the entrance
chamber, is brought to the level of
that in the approach, the gales to-
ward the vessel are opened, a tender
chain is lowered, and the locomo-
tives maneuver the vessel into the
chamber. The gates are closed, the
water raised or lowered to the level
of the next chamber, the gates at the
other end are opened, and the ves-
sel moved forward. Three such
stops are made at (iatun. two at
Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel.

STEAM SHOVELS AT WORK ON THE

PANAMA CANAL CULEBRA CUT

MAY 20, 1913

Ocean-going vessels to the number

of 7^7 passed through the canal from
July 1. 1915, to June .'i". 1916. Their
aggregate net tonnage was 2,479,761.

Cargo carried through the canal on
these ships amounted to 3,140,046

tons, and the ships paid in tolls
$2,399,830.42.

The canal was closed in Septem-
ber, 1915, and remained closed, ex-
cept for the transit of small ves-
sels which had wailed at the en-
trances for passage, until the mid-

vir

OPERATION OF MIRAFLORES LOCKS— "PRESIDENTE SARMIENTO" ENTERING UPPER-
EAST CHAMBER, JULY 14, 1915
S.S. "CRISTOBAL" IN PEDRO MIGUEL LOCKS ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL,

AUGUST 4, 1914

112

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

die of April. The operations were
thus normal for slightly less than
half the year.

The number of ships which passed
through the canal during the pre-
ceding fiscal year was 1,088, aggre-
gate lift tonnage 3,843,035, cargo
carried through 1,969,792 tons. Their
tolls amounted to $4,343,383.69, after
all refunds had been made.

Traffic in two years is shown he-
low :

TOLLS

Canal tolls arc as follows :

Merchant vessels, passengers or
cargo, per net ton (each 100 cubic
feet i of actual earning capacity,
$1.20.

Vessels in ballast, no passengers
or cargo, per ton 75 cents.

Naval vessels, other than trans-
ports, colliers, hospital ships, and
supply ships, per displacement ton,
no cents.

Item

Fiscal year
1915

Fiscal year
1916

Per cent 1916
of 1915

1,088

3,843,035

4,969,792

$4,343,383.69

787 72.3

2.179,761 64.5

Tons of cargo

Tolls

:i.\ 10,046 63.4
S2,. '599,830. 42 55.3

on June 30, 1916. the total re-
ceipts of tolls from vessels passing
through the canal were $2,399,830.42.
The total amount expended on ac-
count Of the operation and mainte-
nance of the canal was $6,999,750.15,
Leaving a deficit to the amount of
$4,599,919.73.

For every dollar the Government
spent for operation and maintenance
it received hack in tolls 34.28 cents.
It spent practically three times as
much to maintain and operate the
canal as it received in tolls.

During the preceding fiscal year

the tolls had exceeded the expenses
by $276,656.38, which represented a
profit of 0.67 per cent on the ex-
penditure for operation and main-
tenance alone, not counting anything

for interest on the money invested

or for depreciation of plant.

COASTWISE TRADE

Tolls on vessels in the United
States coastwise trade amounted to

is.:;t; per cent of all tolls collected
in 1916. During the preceding tis-
cai year, coastwise traffic yielded
over 36 per cent of the total, or
practically double the proportion
which existed during the fiscal year
1910.

Army and Navy transports, col-
liers, hospital ships, and supply
ships, measured as merchant vessels,
per net ton. $1.20.

To the uninitiated, to whom these

Charges may seem heavy, the follow-
ing example is given to show their
justice and the saving effected by
the canal.

The American Hawaiian Company

A CANAL LOCK AT NIGHT

has a liner called the "Ari/.oiian."
< Ml a hasis of ;i speed of 12 knots.

the canal saves tin- "Arizonan"
about 26.8 da.\s at sea on each voy-
age from coast to coast. The •'Ari-
zonan" is a relatively large vessel.
470 feet long by o7.2 feet in the

OPERATION OF GATUN LOCKS, TJ. S. S. "WISCONSIN" IN MIDDLE-EAST CHAMBER-
ATLANTIC ENTRANCE IN DISTANCE, JULY 15, 1915
MIRAFLORES LOCKS-GENERAL VIEW. LOOKING NORTH FROM TOP OF FLOATING
CRAN£ "HERCULES," SHOWING SPILLWAY AND LAKE— PEDRO MIGUEL
LOCKS IN DISTANCE, AUGUST 28. 1915

114

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

COLLECTION* BY MONTHS AND DIRECTIONS

M ONTH

Vessels entering
from Pacific

Vessels entering
from Atlantic

Total

L915

July

$308,264.32
268,397.23
168,450.30

$265,101.35
228,394.80
181,048.00

$573,365.67
496,792.03

349.498 30

August

i ictober

November. .■

December

1916
January

93 . 60

18.00

832 . 80

268 . 80

97,779.29

197,000.83

213,103.11

10,732.40

636.39
1.20

150.00
137,839.15
171,022.96
150.695.89

10,826 00

654.39
834.00

4 1 S . 80
235,618.44
368,023 7!)
363,799.00

March

April

May

Total

$1,254,208.28

$1,145,622.14

$2,399,830.42

beam, and has carried as much as
11,780 tons of cargo through the
canal on one of her voyages. The
canal tolls levied on each passage
are $7,891.20, The cost of operating
the "Arizonan" at sea may be taken
at $450 a day. For 26 days this
means $11,700, from which the sub-
traction of the tolls leaves a net

saving of approximately $3,808 per
voyage.

Partly because of the many slides
and the cost of their removal, part-
ly because of the fact that they
closed the canal for six months in
a year and partly because of the
war, the tolls do not by any means
pay expenses.

m 200000 * 30CIOOO

•914 J

1915 <

PANAMA CANAL TRAFFIC

S.S. 'CRISTOBAL" IN CULEBRA CUT AT PARAISO ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH

CANAL— LOOKING NORTH EROM TOP OF CERRO LUISA, AUGUST 4, 1914

U.S.S. "OHIO" PASSING CUCARACHA SLIDE-LOOKING NORTH, JULY 16, 1915

11G

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES

, BANGE IN TOLLS CHARG] -

During the first months tolls were
levied on the basis of the net ton-
nage of ships determined by special-
ly formulated rules for measurement
for the Panama Canal, in which the
net tonnage was the space available
for carrying cargo, reckoned in tons
of 100 cubic feet. Following an in-
terpretation of the Panama Canal
Act by the Attorney General, the
amount of tolls collectable has been
governed also by the net tonnage ;is
determined by the rules for registry
in the United States, it having been
decided that the tolls should not ex-
ceed $1.25 per net ton on this hasis.

The result of this system has been
a loss in revenue. During the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1916, the tolls
collected amounted to $2,395,928.77.
If the original Panama Canal rules
had been adhered to. collections
would have amounted to $2,786,-
<UL'>i\ a difference of $390,714.05,
14.05 per cent of the hypothetical

earnings under the original system,
and If,.:; per cent of the amount act-
ually Collected.

CHARACTER OF FREIGHT.

Tweuty principal commodities to-
gether made up 07 per cent of all
cargo carried through the canal, be-
ing 2,009,897 tons out of a grand
total of :_',.: 10,046 tons. The miscel-
laneous articles other than the
twelve principal commodities aj:gre-
gated 1,130,149 tons.

.Nitrates amounted t<> 894,139 tons;
refined petroleum to 271,041 : coal,
243,216; sugar, USUI: lumber,
'.m'i.Os.-, ; manufactured goods of iron
and steel. s7.::7o; crude oil. 69,812;
railroad material. 57,829; iron ore,
52,250; canned goods, 11,300; barley,
38,006; and copper. 36,700 tons.

CANAL FORCE
Many people have an idea that be-
cause the canal is finished and open
for business therefore the Isthmus
is depopulated. How far wrong this

c

Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jon Feb Mor Apr May June Julu Aug Sept
1914 l9l5

CROSS TRAFFIC IN THE CANAL

THE PANAMA CANAL

11'

is may l>o seen by the following
statement of the working force actu-
ally engaged during the last week of
July. 1916:

The occupants of Government
quarters numbered 6,772 xlniericans.

Department or Division

Operation and Maintenance:

Locks and office 713

Terminal construction 752

Building 2,243

Electrical 572

Municipal Engineering 2,826

Dredging 2,692

Mechanical 2,550

Marine 277

Fortification 388

General Construction 59

Total 13,072

Supply:

Commissary l ,976

Subsistence 381

Quartermaster 2,103

Accounting 213

Health 1,019

Executive 466

Panama Railroad 4,690

Contractors 198

Grand Total 24,121

df whom 3,747 were men, 1,454 wo-
men, and 1,571 children ; and 10,925
West Indians, of whom 5,880 were
men, 2,1SN women, and 2,857 chil-
dren.

RECENT IMPROVEMENTS

The new 1,000-foot dry dock at
Balboa was put in active commercial
service the last of August, 1916.
The first use of the dock was on
June 27, with the docking of the
dredge "Corozali," and since that
time other canal vessels have been
docked. The first privately owned
vessel to make use of it was the
Sl-ton auxiliary schooner "Chiriqui."
registered in Panama, which en-
tered the dock on Tuesday. August
22

The first commercial use of the
new coaling plant at the Atlantic
terminus of the canal was made in
the morning of Wednesday, August
30, when the steamship "Otaki" was
taken alongside the reloader wharf
to receive 550 tons of coal. .

GAILLARD CUT CULEBRA— LOOKING NORTH FROM CONTRACTOR'S HILL, SHOWING

BARRIER ACROSS CANAL FORMED BY SLIDES FROM EAST AND WEST

BANKS, NOVEMBER 18, 1915

lis

01 I: C01 NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

SLIDES

So much has been said of the
closing of, or interference of the

operation of, the canal by slides,
that nmst people have a confused
idea that the mountains on each
side of the canal are gradually slid-
ing into it, and some have even come
to believe that the canal will one
day be known as a gigantic en-
gineering failure.

Space forbids going into the sub-
ject. But for the comfort of those
who are anxious lest we have spent
our money and time for nothing,
the following quotation from Major
General George W. Goethals' paper
on "Slides at Panama,"* published Jan.
."">. 1916, may well be printed here:

"It is certain, the slides are due
to the failure of underlying strata,
because these were unable to bear
the weighl that the banks broughl
upon them. Under the circumstances

it is difficult to understand the im-
pression that has gained credence
in some quarters that a sea-level
canal would have avoided the dif-
ficulties encountered, since the cut-
ting would have been through the
same material, but at least 80 feet
deeper.

"It is also certain that nothing
can stop the movements until the
angle of repose is reached for the
materials under the conditions that
exist, and that this can be reached
only by removing the excess amount
of material. If experience counts
for aught, then that gained in the
handling of the slides and the breaks
that have occurred along the line of
the canal haw* m, <]<,i/ht that the
means adopted and now in use will
effect a cure; furthermore, that
when cured no further troubles need
be anticipated from slides in this
locality."

Copyright Harris & Ewing

COL. GOETHALS. U.S.A.. THE PANAMA
CANAL BUILDER

CHAPTEE X.
THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS

GEOLOGICAL, COAST AND GEODETIC
AND HYDROGRAPHIC

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

VITAL to the proper develop-
ment of our great natural re-
sources is an accurate knowl-
edge of those resources. It is with
these that the Geological Survey is
concerned, with their investigation,
their development and their proper
exploitation.

and the area topographically mapped
by the topographers was more than
:>5.000 square miles. The land
classification work of the Geological
Survey last year resulted in the
classification of about 36,000 square
miles in the public land States. In
the collection of statistics of mineral

ACCURATE MEASUREMENT WORK IN THE FIELD.— GEODETIC SURVEY

Spending $1,620,520 in the last
fiscal year for which a report is
available (to June 30, 1915 I the
Geological Survey's work can hardly
be summed up in a sentence. Dur-
ing the year geological investiga-
tions were made in 47 States and
Alaska ; topographic surveys were
made in 30 States. Alaska anil Ha-
waii, and stream measurements were
made in 41 States and Hawaii. The
total area covered by geologists in
reconnaissance and detailed surveys
was more than 76.000 square miles

production the Geological Survey co-
operated with the State geologists of
II. States and carried on correspond
ence with 90,000 producers, as well
as answering over 50,000 letters of
inquiry.

The bureau divides its activities
into the Geologic. Topographic,
Water Resources, Land Classifica-
tion, Publication and Administrative
brandies.

Geological Branch

The original duties of the geologic

Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc.

THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SI "II VETS

121

branch were the classification of the
public lands and the examination of
the geological structure, mineral re-
sources and products of the national
domain. These duties were at first
construed to apply only to the public
land States. Later, however, in
order that all parts of the country
might share alike in the benefits of
its work, the survey was specifically
authorized "to continue the prepara-
tion of a geological map of the
United States," the scope of its

the earth's crust and its mineral
constituents. The survey is a source
of geologic information regarding
not only the geology of the United
Stales and its possessions, but also
that of Mexico, Central America and
even South America. By corre-
spondence it is asked for data re-
garding the geology and mineral de-
posits of all parts of the world.
The geologic branch has the double
task of geologic surveying, includ-
ing the investigation, description

MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING AREAS COVERED BY TOPOGRAPHIC
SURVEYS PRIOR TO JULY 1, 1915

operations being thus made nation-
wide. Since that time (1882) the
investigations necessary to the ful-
fillment of the survey's obligations
to the public have become as varied
as the aspects of geology itself.

The geologic branch is the effective
agency of the survey in investiga-
tions in all parts of the United
States and Alaska and also the great
geologic information bureau to
which the American public, from
Key West to Point Barrow and from
San Diego to Eastport, applies for
knowledge of every sort concerning

and mapping of the geology and
mineral deposits of all parts of the
country ; the classification of the
public lands and the publication of
the results of its work, and furnish-
ing to the public miscellaneous geo-
logic information derived from all
sources.

But it is not to the general public
only that its services are rendered
direct. Probably no one bureau of
the Government co-operates with so
many others in their work as does
this survey.

The survey co-operates with the

1 22

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Bureau of Minos in the metallo-
graphic study of ores, in the Investi-
gation of the invasion of California
oil wells by salt water, in studies
of the application of geology to en-
gineering problems of mining and
construction and in the examination
of placers and placer mining in the
United States. The survey is en-
gaged with the Bureau of Standards,
the Bureau of Mines and the Office

Justice in connection with suits re-
garding public lands: to the Navy
Department in regard to <>il and
water supplies; to the Office of In-
dian Affairs in the classification of
Indian lands: to the War Depart-
ment with reference to water sup-
plies in its reservations, and to the
(General Land Office in the classifica-
tion of withdrawn coal, oil and
phosphate lands.

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h-k~rTv-ir rf.-^=bjri-r 1 \ x^k i__Lj_j^4!

COAST AND GEODETIC SUKVEYS

of Public Roads in a systematic

study of building stones. It co-
operated informally with the Smith-
sonian institution, Bureau of Fish-
eries, Forest Service, Navy Depart-
ment, War Department and Light-
house Service, as well as with insti-
tutions of learning, including the
Geophysical Laboratory and Marine
Biological station of the Carnegie
Institution. Services are rendered
to the Department of Agriculture in
the examination of lands in the na-
i tonal forests ; to the I department of

Topographic Work
The general public is perhaps more
familiar with the work of the topo-
graphic brancb of the survey than
with any other, since most people
at one time or another have use for
accurate maps of the country in
which they live or intend to visit.
Carried on in co-operation with the
states, the work of mapping the
whole country has made greal prog-
ress, 10.2 per cent of the entire
area and that the most important.
economically considered— h a v i n s

Till] THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS

VS.\

1. Plane Table Work. 2. Lad Signaling Roadman to Move. 3. Reading Microscopically in

Precise Measurement Work in the Field. 4. Erecting a Signal Over a Recovered

Triangulation Point

THE GEODETIC SURVEYORS AT WORK

11'4

OUR COUNTRY AM > ITS RESOURCES

PRESENT CONDITION OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE
UNITED STATES AN D NEW AREAS SURVEYED JULY 1, 1914 TO JUNE 30, 1915

Area mapped to
June 30, 1915

Percent ago of

total area of

State mapped to

June 30, 1915

Sq. Miles

19.192

68,996

21,380

114,708

48,783

4,965

1,202

70

2,339

17,337

26,185

14,551

3,441

11,652

64,159

17,973

8,319

9,361

12,327

8,266

6,018

6,541

2,126

36,710

57,163

26,524

51,115

3,380

S.224

37,247

43.553

18,390

9,716

40,018

39.851

23.406

24,908

1,248

5.640

18,594

21,153

67,782

68.797

4.190

29.980

26,033

24,170

12,203

28,404

37
61
40
72
47

100
51

100
4
29
31
26
9
21
78
44
17
28

100

100
10
8
4
53
39
34
46
36

100
30
89
35
14
97
57
24
55

100
18
24
50
25
81
44
70
3S

100
21
29

Ohio

1 lali

Total

1.218,290
1 ,393

40.2
22

L26

(U'K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

TRIANGULATION SURVEY

been surveyed and published. The
table on page 124 gives the data for

each Stale.

These maps, most beautifully en-
graved and printed, can be obtained
at a nominal price. A key map,
showing just what portions of each
State are available, should be se-
cured firsl by application t<> the sur-
vey, from which selections can be
made as desired. The maps are in
color and accurate with the accu-
racy of the highesl degree <>f engi-
neering skill.

Water Resources Land
Classification

Immensely important though they
are, space forbids any extensive re-
port of the work of the water re-
sources branch. Full information in
regard to the water work In forty-
one States and Hawaii, of which
twenty-six have cooperated, as have
the Reclamation, Indian and Public

Health Service and many army en
gineers, can be had on application
to the survey.

Similarly the land classification,
and the withdrawal and restoration
of public lands with relation to their
oil, coal and mineral deposits, is
a subject too big for extended notice
here anil too special for a popular
report More than 36,000 square
miles of land were classified in the
year just passed.

Publications

The work of the Geological Sur-
vey is largely made available to the
public by distribution of printed re-
ports and maps. The publications
Of a year consisted of 1 annual
report. 1 monograph, 5 professional
papers. 10 separate chapters from "J
professional papers, 35 bulletins, 30
separate chapters from 5 bulletins,
.'::; water supply papers. IS separate

chapters from 4 water supply papers,

TDK THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS

1 annual report on mineral resources
for 191.'! (published also in <i:i ad
vance chapters, 15 delivered in 1913-
14 and 47 in 11)14-15), 5 advance
chapters from the annual report on
mineral resources for 1914, 3 geo-
logic folios, 2 lists of publications,
1 list of topographic maps and folios,
pamphlets entitled "Topographic In-
structions of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, 1915," and "Service
Bulletin, 1914," leaflets entitled "Na-
ture and Uses of Topographic Maps,"

PRECISE LEVELING

•The Production of Copper in 1914"
and "The Production of Spelter in
1914," 3 circulars concerning geo-
logic folios, 22 index map circulars.
55 press bulletins and 10 monthly
lists of new publications.

A complete list of all Geological
Survey publications, with their cost
price, can be obtained from the Su-
perintendent of Public Documents.
Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C, to whom application
should be made by those desiring to
obtain such publications. Ma] is,
however, are obtainable from the
survey direct, as stated above.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

A bureau of the Department of
Commerce, the Coast Survey per-
forms work seldom heard of by the
general public, of the most vital
importance not only to the scientific
world but the public itself.

Every coast chart, on which the
vessels of the navy and the mari-
time world in general depend for
safety of both life and property, is
made by the Coast Survey. Its

charts are models for all the world
lor both accuracy and beauty.

The books of tide tables, on which
all mariners depend for tide condi-
tions in harbors and along the
coasts, are published by the Coast
Survey. Most remarkable of books,
these enormous summaries of calcu-
lations are not the work of human
hands and brains but the result of
the labor of the most wonderful cal-
culating machine in the world — the
tide predicting engine. A huge af-
fair of wheels and shafts, occupying
a mahogany and glass case which
fills a room of the bureau, this most
accurate and intricate of machines
does the work of a hundred com-
puters and more accurately than any
human being could do it.

In addition to the preparation and
printing and issuing of coast charts,
the survey conducts triangulation
work which will in time gridiron
the whole United States, determines
latitudes, investigates magnetic phe-
nomena, conducts precise leveling,
makes special surveys and performs
a host of special duties, such as sup-
plying experts for duty on Interna-
tional Boundary Commissions, In-
ternational Geodetic Association,
Board of Life Saving Appliances,
Mississippi River Commission, co-
operation with Alaskan Engineering
Commission, etc.

Its hydrographic work for coast
charts is of the highest importance
and its development of what is
known as the "wire drag" has revo-
lutionized all such work. No mat-
ter how closely soundings may be
made of a harbor, for instance, it is
impossible to be certain that all
sunken rocks, wrecks, shoals or other
obstructions to navigation have been
discovered. But with a submerged
wire drag of a known depth, dragged
through the water between two
widely separate vessels, a positive
result is obtained resulting in a
security beyond price to tin1 mariner.

In its work the Coast Survey
sends out numerous parties which
work along the coasts, or, if trian-
gulation or leveling is being done,

128

nil! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

in the interior. Many vessels are
used for coast work, including the
steamers "Bache," "Endeavor" (now
sold), "Hydrographer," "IsLs," "Ex-
plorer," "G edne y," "McArthur,"
"Patterson," "Taku" and "Yukon"
and the schooner "Matchless."

In the Philippine Islands five ves-
sels aid the work of the survey, re-
porting to the suboffice at Manila.
This work is prosecuted partly with
funds of the survey and partly with
funds from the Philippine Govern-

PLANE TABLE WORK IN THE WATER
IN THE PHILIPPINES

in. ill. which also furnishes four of
the five vessels engaged. The ships
are the "Pathfinder," "Marinduque,"
"Romblon," "Fathomer" and "Re-
search."

li is difficult, if not Impossible, to
cover in a few words the extensive
and varied work of a bureau which
requires :i closely printed report of
156 pages to Show a year's activi-
ties. Bu1 in spite of the fad that
the determination of astronomic

latitudes, the determination of
gravity intensity, the prosecution of
triangulation, the wire-drag hydro-
graphic work which last year dis-
covered and charted hundreds of
shoals and obstructions to naviga-
tion, the coast pilot work, the tidal
determination and publications, the
assistance rendered vessels and mar-
iners in distress, the precise level-
ing, the special surveys and special
services rendered by the bureau, the
determination of magnetic elements,
dip, declination and horizontal in-
tensity made in .31 States, are all
highly important, it is after all
the coast charting and the printing
and distribution of these charts
which are the most indispensable
features of this highly important
scientific bureau.

During the year there were
printed :

Lithographic charts 62,036

Engraved charts 53,611

Miscellaneous lithographic prints 22,417
Miscellaneous engraved prints... 25

Total 138,039

a total of 304.799 impressions from
the press.

The charts issued during the year
were 119,387, an increase of 1,895
over the previous year. Thirty-nine
thousand one hundred and twenty-
four of these charts were issued to
the Hydrographic Office for navy
use and 52,855 supplied the mer-
chant marine through sales agents.
Coast pilots were issued to the num-
ber of 6,291, and tide tables for the
Atlantic Coast 2,050, Pacific Coast
10,775, General 2.206.

The appropriation for 1915 was
$1,039,730. For 1916 it was $1,365,-
620, most of the increase" being for
two new and badly needed vessels.
The money is expended as follows:

For field expenses $355,400

Repairs and maintenance of

vessels £0,000

Officers and men. vessels I'. MM' 01)

Pay of field officers 174,600

Pay of office force 204.420

i iffi.-e expenses 500.000

Two new vessels 2S9.000

The urgent need of the ('oast and
Geodetic Survey is for new quar-
ters. Occupying several old build-

THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS

129

ings, none of them built for the pur-
pose (one was once a hotel, another
a private house!) much time, money
and efficiency is wasted from lack of
proper facilities. Already in the
first rank in naval and maritime im-
portance, this Government bureau
will, when allowed to expand and
work under proper conditions, take
its place in popular estimation with
other better known but no more im-
portant bureaus of the Government
which, because of their popular ap-
peal, fare so much better at the
hands of Congress.

The Hydrographic Office also pub-
lishes sailing directions and manuals
for the safe navigation of vessels
based on the original surveys and
reports, or upon similar publications
or information received from for-
eign hydrographic offices.

The Hydrographic Office also is-
sues a number of publications. The
Weekly Notice for Mariners is a
publication for which the demand
increases greatly from year to year.
During the fiscal year ending 1915,
277,420 whole weekly notices and
241,74S extracts therefrom were pub-

^■FtY \ SHOY"f irwds^

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■• : . -^ . ■ l> ". -

PROGRKSS SKF.TCH

UNITED STATES

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS

HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE

The Hydrographic Office of the
United States Navy supplements the
work of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey in chartmaking by providing
both for the United States naval
vessels, and for all mariners who
have use for them, charts of the
coasts of all the world.

lished. The information given in
this journal is in regard to the cor-
rection of existing charts, sailing
directions necessary and essential to
safe navigation, such as changes in
lights, buoys, beacons, wrecks and
shoals.

The Daily Memorandum comprises
publication of information affecting

PHI

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

the immediate safe navigation of
vessels, which include the presence
of icebergs, Held ice, derelicts,
wrecks, missing buoys, etc. This in-
formation, in addition to being pub-
lished in the Daily Memorandum, is
telephoned or telegraphed to the
various radio stations and sent
broadcast to all shipping four times
a day.

The Hydrographic Bulletin, which
is issued weekly, totaled for the past
year _!47,468 copies. It contains

the vessels of the navy. It furnishes
free of cost to all other Government
vessels such charts and publications
as are requested, and the same ma-
terial is sold at the cost of printing
and paper to the merchant marine
or the public in general.

By international agreement the
United States receives from all for-
eign hydrographic oflices two copies
of all charts issued by them, and
supplies to them two copies of all
charts issued by it. Of all foreign

WIRE DRAG FOR SURVEYING THE SURFACE OF THE BOTTOM

many items of interest to seafaring
people and is an important member
of the publication family of this
office.

One hundred and twenty-four
hook publications arc issued by the
Hydrographic Office, which are ac-
cessary to the maritime public.
They include such volumes as Amer-
ican Practical Navigator, List of
Lights, Intel-national Code of Sig
Dais, Line of Position Tables. Africa
Pilot. British Island Pilot. Mediter-
ranean Pilot, etc.

The Hydrographic Office supplies

all charts and navigational publics
tioiis, whatever their character, to

hydrographic offices the British Ad-
miralty is. of course, the largest and
most efficient. The United States
has had to depend very largely upon
charts issued by the British Admi-
ralty, not only for information but
for the actual charts themselves, so
that the number purchased in the
past year was 19,222. Altogether
at the end of the fiscal year the
United states depended upon the
British Admiralty for 1,494 indi-
vidual charts of various parts of the
world. These, however, are rapidly
being reproduced by the Hydro-
graphic < mice by a photolithographic
process on zinc plates. The result

THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS LSI

A GREAT BRASS BRAIN— THE WONDERFUL TIDE PREDICTOR

13!

nl'R CoINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

Of this reproduction will be both to
save the purchase price of such
charts from a foreign government
and to make the United States inde-
pendent of any foreign government
for the supplying of world charts
to its own navy.

Navigational charts to the number
of 123,1^8 and pilot charts to the
number of 205,226 were published

on a large scale and covering the
approaches to the Panama Canal,
has been issued. Pilot charts are in
great demand, showing, as they do,
tracks of just past storms, prevail-
ing wind directions, compass varia-
tion and other maritime information,
making them extremely valuable
even to a vessel well supplied with
regulation charts.

CHART OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

by the Hydrographic Office during

the past year. At the end of the
year the Hydrographic Office had on
issue the following charts:

Hydrographic Office charts 2,281

Coasl and Geodetic Survey charts 664

British Admiralty charts 1.4!>4

Total 4,4:5!)

The iiii.it charts arc published
monthly Cor the North Atlantic,
North Pacific and Indian Oceans
and quarterly Cor the South Allan
tie and South Pacific Oceans. In
addition to these a new pilot chart
of Central American waters, printed

Sixteen branch Hydrographic Of-
fices are maintained, located as fol-
lows: Boston, New York. Philadel-
phia, Baltimore, Norfolk. Savannah,
New Orleans. Galveston, San Fran-
cisco, Portland. Ore., Seattle, Du-
luth, Sault Sainte Marie, Chicago,
Cleveland and Buffalo.

In addition to these there are 52
agents in the United states, located
in .'IT cities and towns, and 12 agents
in foreign countries for the sale of
Hydrographic Office publications.

The branch Hydrographic offices
are engaged in collecting and dis-

THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 133

TAKING UP SAMPLES OF BOTTOM WITH HAND REEL

tributing hydrographic information.
They endeavor to give assistance to
officers and men of merchant vessels
both as to data pertaining to the
seas traveled and personal instruc-
tions in navigation. The popularity
of the work of assistance rendered
by these branch offices is shown by
the large number of ship captains,
agents, pilots and other seafaring
men who visited the several branch
offices during the year. In 1915
there was a total of 40,646 visitors
and over 26,000 telephone calls,
relative to correct chronometer time
and other items of nautical informa-
tion were answered.

A large supply of all charts issued
by the office is kept on file in the
main office in Washington. Sending
these out on demand is a very im-
portant work of the Hydrographic

Office, since to issue a chart not up
to date in any and every particular
might cost many lives and the loss
of much property.

Thus no chart is sent out until it
has been corrected to date and by
hand with all alterations made
necessary by changes in lights, new
information in regard to depth, the
presence of wrecks or other obstruc-
tions to navigation, etc. As an in-
dication of the size of this work it
may be mentioned that during the
fiscal year there were transferred
from old to new copies of charts
some 18,000 corrections, and handled
by requisition or for plotting and
reference about 9,000 charts. In-
cluding new issues the total number
of copies of charts printed during
the year was 328,484.

COAST GUARD BURNING A COSTON LIGHT

CHAPTER XL

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF LIFE AND
PROPERTY AT SEA

BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES.

HAVING the greatest coast-
line in the world, the United
States also occupies the proud
position of having the largest, finest
and most competent lighthouse es-
tablishment in the world. Not yet
has it reached the full flower of
perfection which will obtain when
the ideal of the service is realized —
lighthouses so numerous and so well
placed that it will be impossible for
a coastwise vessel to sail out of the
radiance of one without coming into
view of the next. But great prog-
ress has been made toward this end,
and the building, both of structures
and of traditions, of apparatus and
of the service itself, has been so well
and carefully done that the service
is a permanent asset not only to all
our own shipping, but to the ship-
ping of the world.

Moreover, to the credit of the
country be it said, there are no
"light dues" which any foreign or
domestic vessel must pay. Uncle
Sam lights his coasts and says in ef-
fect to all who go down to the sea
in ships. "The light I give you for
your safety is emblematic of this
land — it is free."

Just how big the establishment
must be is realized more easily by
considering the enormous size of
coast line than in any other way.
Measured in steps of thirty miles it
is huge: measured in steps of three
miles, which go into and out of a
multitude of bays, coves, shelters,
inlets, etc., it is enormous. The

table on page 136 shows just how
big it really is.

To protect such a coast line re-
quires an infinite variety of warn-
ing devices, and a great number of
each. There are 1,G62 lights other
than the 2,s,",7 so-called minor lights,
53 stations on which are maintained
light vessels, commonly called light-
ships, 470 gas buoys, and 124 Boat
lights, a total of 5,155 lighted aids
to navigation.

The unlighted aids to navigation
are scarcely less important and even
greater in number. Five hundred
and twenty-seven fog signals blare
raucously in fog and mist. 50 sub-
marine signals give their peculiar
warnings. S6 unlighted whistling
buoys and 237 unlighted bell buoys
give their mournful notes. 2,00] (lay-
beacons show the way and 6, 188
other buoys mark channels and
shoals, a total of 9,389 unlighted
aids to navigation and a grand total
of 14,544 aids to navigation of all
kinds. These and other statistics
here given are as of June 30, 1915.

It is evident that the lighthouse
establishment of the United States
must require considerable money to
conduct and the able efforts of a
fair army of people. The appropria-
tion for the maintenance of the ser-
vice for 1910 was $5,164,030, which
included $250,000 for new lighthouse
tenders. Of the balance, $2,775,000
will go for general expenses and the
rest for salaries and pay.

The service is divided into nine-

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

i::<;

OUK COUNTRY AND TTS RESOURCES

TOTAL SrJA COAST LINE UNDER JUKISDICTION OF THE DNITBD STATES

General
coast line
in steps of

30 miles

Detailed

coast or

channel line

in steps of

3 miles

Statute miles

3.480

1,404

374

2,520

7,300

788

86

76

Statute miles
9,732

3,294

Porto Rico, adjacenl United states islands, and Guantanamo
Great Lakes and connecting waters, United states portion..

449

4,020

22,654

1,018

92

91

Total coast line under United States Lighthouse Service

Coastal rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained

by the United States Lighthouse Service (Atlantic and

Gulf coasts, 1,374 miles; Pacific coast, 242 miles)

Interior rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained
by the United States Lighthouse, Service (Mississippi
River, 1.920 miles; Ohio River, 907 miles; Missouri River.

16,028

41,350
1,616

4.226

Total coast line and rivers under United States Light-

47.192

Philippine Islands 'lighted by Philippine Government)

4,080

17

17.005

11.571

40

Total seacoast line under the jurisdiction of the United

4S.SS1

teen districts, each with its own in-
spector and force. In the Bureau at
Washington and the nineteen dis-
tricts, there are 12.'! inspectors, en-
gineers, draftsmen, mechanicians,
etc., 145 clerks, messengers, janitors
and office laborers, 71 depot keep-
ers and assistants, 1.171 lighl keep
ers and assistants. Lil'i; laborers in
charge of minor lights, 1,556 labor-
ers in charge of post lights and
buoys, 12 custodians Of reservations.
1,605 Officers and crews on tenders
and light vessels. 278 employees of
the field force for construction and
repair (registered) and .".ii7> of the
same unregistered, a total of 5,792
employees.

Forty-four depots are maintained
iii the various districts for storage
and distribution of supplies, repairs
to apparatus, scraping and painting
of buoys, and similar purposes.
Forty-six lighthouse tenders carry
supplies to and from the various de-
pots, supply lighthouses which can-

not otherwise be reached with food,
coal, fuel oil and supplies, put down
and take up buoys, attend beacon
and fog signals, and in general keep
the aids to navigation where they
belong and performing their duties.
During the year these forty-six ves-
sels steamed a total of 469,000 nau-
tical miles.

The fifty-three light vessel sta-
tions are kept supplied with ships
from the total tleet of GO light ves-
sels. Thirty-five <>f these are steam-
ers. •_".> are sailing vessels.

The service is one of warning and
of aid to navigation, yet its crews
have always co-operated witli the
Life Saving Service I now incorpor-
ated in the Coast Guard) or taken
the initiative where necessary in the
saving of life and property. It is
merely incidental but none the less
worthy of note that during the year
on 1 1.". occasions, services were ren-
dered in the saving of life or prop-
erty by employees of the service.

CAPE HATTERAS LIGHT STATION CAPE CHARLES LIGHT STATION. VA.

MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHT STATION, MASS. POINT REYES LIGHT STATION, CALIF.
THE PROTECTORS OF THE FAIRWAYS OF COMMERCE

PKOTKCTInX . i ' l..\

139

The service publishes a greai
many different booklets, which in-
clude six light lists for the various
coasts and rivers, buoy lists for each
of its nineteen districts, a weekly
"Notice to Mariners." of which al-
most 200,000 copies are distributed
yearly, a monthly lighthouse ser-
vice bulletin, for employees, etc.

The ideals and esprit de corps of
the service are of the highest, and
the efficiency of the various crews,
their pride in their work, and their
determination to "keep the light
burning" make of the service one
which is literally the standard of
the world. •

THE COAST GUARD

On J a n u a r v
28, 1915, the
Coast Guard Act
was passe d,
merging into one
great service two
which had previ-
ously served the
maritime world
together, but un-
der separate administration.

The Revenue Cutter Service was
originally established in 1790, at the
second session of the First Congress,
upon the recommendation of the first
Secretary of the Treasury, as the re-
sult of the need for the services of
a coast patrol for the enforcement of
the customs laws and an organized
armed force for the protection of the
sea coast, there being at that time
no naval establishment.

The Life Saving Service was not
the creation of a single legislative
act, but the result of a series of en-
actments dating back to 1848, which
had in view the preservation of life
and property from shipwreck. In
1871 a definite life-saving system
was inaugurated and administered
in conjunction with the Revenue
Cutter Service until June 18, 1878,
when Congress established the Life
Saving Service as a separate organi-
zation.

As the Life Saving Service was
maintained for the purpose of sav-

ing life and property along tho coast,
and as one of the principal functions
of the Revenue Cutter Service in
time of peace was to perforin simi-
lar duties on the seas, the two ser-
vices necessarily co-operated with
and supplemented each other to a
Considerable extent in this work of
conservation. It became apparent
that closer co-ordination and increas-

GETTING READY A SUBMARINE MINE
WITH DRY GUN COTTON

ed efficiency would result from the
union of both services in one or-
ganization. The result is the pres-
ent Coast Guard.

The duties of the Coast Guard are
so many and various that its own
most condensed report requires
three hundred and ten closely print-
ed pages. It saves life at sea and
assists wrecked persons. It cares
for mariners in distress and hoards
ships and examines papers for viola-
tions of law. It seizes vessels violat-
ing the law or makes report of such
violation, patrols regattas, removes
derelicts, saves property, enforces
neutrality, patrols for ice and pro-
tects seals. It warns vessels of dan-
ger, recovers and buries bodies cast
up, fights forest tires, and tires in
wharves and shipping. It belps
maintain public order, apprehends
law breakers and prevents suicides.
It recovers stolen property, restores

140

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

CUTTERS PUMPING OUT A WATERLOGGED BARK STRANDED AT LOST HARBOR

ALASKA

lost children t<> parents, furnishes
transportation to other branches of
the public service and acts as pilot
in eases of emergency. So active
is (his splendid service that during
the year just passed there were but
five days when some unit of the ser-
vice whs aot actively engaged in
wreck or rescue work and the aver-
age day's work w:is the rendering of
assistance of some variety in more
than six cases.

All that a marine police patrol
can do, the Coast (Jnard does: all
that a Life Saving Service can do,
the Coast Guard does.

The Coast Guard possesses 24
cruising cutters, 18 harbor cutters,
and 270 coast stations. The activ-
ities of the year resulted in the sav-
ing of 1,507 lives, and the saving of
vessels and cargoes valued at $11,-
088,730, as well as 556 cases of as-
sistance rendered not catalogable as
of either life or property.

The total expenditures for both
branches of the Coast Guard totaled
$5,027,752.71. Other Government de-
partments and Bureaus occasionally
return a surplus to the Treasury—
the Post Office has done so and the
Patent Office does so regularly. But

A STANDARD SURF BOAT LAUNCHED THROUGH BREAKERS
A COAST GUARD STATION AND LIFE BOAT AT SQUAN BEACH, N. J.

142

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

mi mailer how valuable in money the
saving effected by other Governmen-
tal activities may be, few if any
bureaus can point to so clean cut a
record as this actual rescue work of
property, otherwise a total loss, val-
ued at nmre than twice the cost of
the whole service, and throw in the
lives saved of the population of a
small town for good measure!

It is the business of a Coast
Guard cutter to get rid of derelicts
whenever they are encountered, and
frequently their duty to hunt up

violations, involving lines totaling
$220,500. Thirty-seven race courses
were patrolled, for the protection of
life and property. The fur seal
pat ml in the North Pacific and Ber-
ing Sea is in the hands of the Coast
Guard, which keeps three vessels on
duty during the summer months, and
two do ice patrol duty to locate ice-
bergs and held ice in the Atlantic
steamship lines, to give warnings to
trans-Atlantic vessels and prevent
loss of life and property.
The Coast Guard has its own

BLOWING UP A SUNKEN MENACE TO NAVIGATION BY MEANS OF
SUBMARINE MINES

derelicts reported. Last year 26

were either blown up or towed to
port and turned over to their own-
ers. Involving the saving of $161,000
in properly and saving who knows
what lives or property in preventing
these obstructions to navigation
from doing damage.

The enforcement of the navigation
laws led to the boarding and exami-
nation of 24,S17 vessels during the
year, resulting in 77"J reports for law

academy, located at New London,
Connecticut, where, after severe
competitive examinations, young
men are given a course in train-
ing which compares not unfavorably
with both Annapolis and West Point.
Including practice cruises upon the
culler "Itasca."

In addition to its other work, the
Coast Guard works in conjunction
with the Board of Life Saving Ap-
pliances, which considers new inven-

PROTECTION AT SEA

1 i:;

tions and devices and makes recom-
mendations as to their adoption or
development.

It is not to be expected that i.n
every case where a wreck occurs
or assistance is rendered, a com-
plete success can be had. But the
proportion of lives saved over lives
lost is very large. During the year
just passed, 84 disasters within the
scope of the service were attended
with loss of life. In every such
case, according to law, an immediate
investigation was made, with the
inspiring result that in no case
was loss of life chargeable to negli-
gence or failure of the service, but
to circumstances beyond human
control.

It would require more pages than
there are words here available to
describe in detail even the more im-
portant accomplishments and activ-
ities of the Coast Guard, but the
following summary perhaps repre-

sents its work as well as it is pos-
sible to do in tabular form.

DIVER FROM CUTTER DESCENDING TO
OLD DOMINION 3.S. "MONROE"

COAST GUARD WORK FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915.

Lives saved or persons rescued from peril

Persons on board vessels assisted

Persons in distress cared for

Vessels boarded and papers examined

Vessels seized or reported for violation of law

Fines and penalties incurred by vessels reported

Regattas and marine parades patrolled, in accordance with law

Vessels to which assistance was rendered

Instances of miscellaneous assistance

Derelicts and obstructions to navigation removed or destroyed

Value of vessels assisted (including cargoes)

Value of derelicts recovered and delivered to owners

Appropriations for 1915, including repairs to cutters and establishing
stations:

Revenue-Cutter Service $2. 536, 716. 25

Life-Saving Service 2,550,525 . 36

Net expenditure for maintenance for 1915:

Revenue Cutter Service $2,530,371 17

Life-Saving Service 2,497,381 .54

1,507

10,952

813

24,817

772

$220,500.00

37

1,504

556

26

$10,927,730.00

$161,000.00

$5,089,241.61

Total for Coast Guard.

$5,027,752 71

APPRENTICES ENGAGED IN EXAMINING A LOCOMOTIVE UNDER COMPETENT

INSTRUCTION

AN AIR BRAKE INSTRUCTION CAR

CHAPTER XII.
RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES

WITH the exception of the ag-
ricultural and manufactur-
ing industries, the railroads
ot the United States occupy the at-
tention of a larger number of people
and give employment to more men
than any other industry-

To consider so vast a subject in
a short space it is necessary to sep-
arate it into only its most important
divisions. This chapter, therefore,
will deal with the railroads of the

mon consent of all railroad men. into
three classes. Class I. includes the
183 railroads which have operating
revenues in excess of one million dol-
lars, Class II. includes the 2S5 rail-
roads which have operating revenues
less than one million dollars, but
more than one hundred thousand
dollars, and Class III. includes the
431 railroads which have operating
revenues of less than one hundred
thousand dollars.

Copyright, 1912, by Irving Underbill
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE PENNSYLVANIA TERMINAL AT NEW YORK IS

MOST IMPRESSIVE

United States under headings of
"Physical Aspects," "Financial,"
Public Service," "Human Rela-
tions," closing with a short refer-
ence to the street railways of the
various cities of the country.

There are altogether in the United
States 899 railroad companies. These
are divided, both by the Interstate
Commerce Commission and by com-

The majority of the statistics dis-
cussed in this chapter are of roads
of Class I. only. These Class I.
roads, however, are vastly in the ma-
jority as far as mileage and im-
portance are concerned. Of the ap-
proximately 266,000 miles of track.
229.000 of it is operated by Class
I., 20,000 by Class II., and from
16,000 to 17,000 by Class III.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

i it;

nrit COUNTRY A.\D ITS RESOURCES

Statistics for this chapter have
been gathered from many sources,
the principal ones being the reports
of the interstate Commerce Commis-
sion, the reports of the Bureau of
Railway Economics, and the reports
of the Bureau of Railway News and
statistics, inasmuch as these three
statistical gathering organizations
frequently cover the same subject by
statistics from a dissimilar Dumber
of sources, they do not always agree
in detail, but, in the main, they agree
iu almost every particular.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

Track
Four hundred and forty-eight op-
erating companies, including all of
('lass I. and almost all of (Mass II.,
render reports covering 247,812 miles
of track, of which 1.913 miles go
through Canada and 52 miles into
Mexico. of this mileage 11,000
miles were operated under trackage
rights, leaving 236,600 miles as the

real physical mileage of the country.
• in a basis of the 1914 reported pop-
ulation of 98,372,266 this means thai
for every 390 people in the United
States there is a railroad mile of
line.

Railroad construction in this coun-
try is on the decrease rather than
the increase. Eight hundred and
ninety-eight miles were huilt in 1915
against 1,531 miles in 1914. These
figures are for main line tracks. In-
cluding auxiliary tracks, sidings,
etc., 1,31!) miles were huilt in 1915
as against 2.12(1 built in 1914. This
new construction was the smallest
within half a century and reflects in
a most comprehensive manner the ef-
fect of the industrial depression re-
sulting from the European War on
this country in 1915. Since the panic
of 1893, the largest railway mileage
was built in 1902, when over 6,000
miles of new track was constructed.
The total track constructed since
ls<J3, including 1015. is M,529 miles.

380

if)

(u 550

*>

c
o

iD

O

.£ 300

c

_l

° 250
in

-

^>

20O

IS90 le95 1900 1905 l9tO

RAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES
'I'lic apparent decrease in 1915 is due t<> the use of figures From private sources,
Bgares no! being available. *<•>■ page I IT

1915

UAILROAKS OV THE UNITED STATES

I 17

The most recent official figures are
those of the Interstate Commerce
Commission for 1014, which gives
for tiie whole country a total of all
tracks of 387,208 miles. This in-
cludes yard tracks, sidings, fourth,
third, second and single track as
well as main line mileage. The 1915
statistics, gathered by private
sources make the total for the coun-
try 370,344 miles, including the
same tracks as are given in the In-
terstate Commerce Commission fig-
ures.

fives there are 303 electric locomo-
tives operating upon steam roails in
the 1'nited States. These are of all
sizes, hut it is of interest to note
that the world's largest and most
powerful freight locomotive is driven
by electricity. It is used to haul
trains over the Rockies from Mon-
tana into Idano and the electricity
used is generated by water power.
The length of the locomotive is
112i/2 feet and it weighs 2s4 tons.
Compare this to the average weigh!
in tons of the steam locomotives of

THE SAFETY FIRST TRAIN OF THE B. & 0.
Shows the possibility of the railroad for exhibition purposes.

LOCOMOTIVES

Fpon these miles of tracks there
are running to-day upward of 65,000
locomotives. These engines possess
tractive power of 2.004,321,000
pounds, a weight so inconceivable
that only a comparison can make it
evident. If it were possible to hang
at the end of a long rope, passing
over a pulley, as many huge ships
as would balance the pull in pounds
of these locomotives it would require
more than twenty-one vessels each
the size and displacement of the ill-
fated "Lusitania" to equal the com-
bined effort <>f the locomotives of
the United States!

In addition to the steam locomo-

the United States, which in 1915
was S4.2 tons.

CARS

The locomotives of the United
States haul 54,378 passenger cars
and 2,362,914 freight cars. These
have a capacity of 94,995,821 tons.
an average of 40.2 tons per car. It
is interesting to look back to the
census of 10()2 and find that in that
year the average ton capacity of a
car was but 28. Of the passenger
cars 10.S41 are all steel construc-
tion, 4,334 steel underfranie. and 39,-
203 cars are yet of w 1 construc-
tion. The total seating capacity of
all passenger cars is 2,277, 138, an
average of 56 passengers per car.

J4S

QUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

While the value of equipment, of
course, varies widely with tne mails
buying it and the service for which
it is adapted, it may be interesting
to note the prices paid for equip-
ment. A locomotive, in 1013, of
average size and hauling capacity
cost !?2:u:;."). a chair car $11,580, a
parlor car $17,019, a dining car
$20,227, a coach $12,300. a baggage
car $11,185, a mail car $10,001, and
a cafe car, $18,381. This would
make the total price of a train so

into box cars, flat cars, stock cars,
coal cars, tank cars, refrigerator

cars and others. Of tne freight ears
in use in 1914 by Class I. and Class
II. roads mi ire than one million were
box cars. 140,000 were flat cars. 82,-
900 were stock cars, 9uO,UOO were
coal cars, s.500 were tank cars. 48,-
800 were refrigerating cars, and mis-
cellaneous cars made up the balance
of 97,000.

Just how important freight cars
are to this country is more easih

A SPLENDID EXAMPLE 0E ELECTRIFICATION ON A TRUNK LINE. C. M. & ST. P.

made up $130,797, although, of
course, few. if any. trains have so
many varieties of rolling stock be-
tween engine and rear.

To the average traveler the pas
senger car and baggage equipmenl is
the important thing. To the country
as a whole, however, the freight cars
are the vital element in railroad
operation.

To the public all freight cars are
freight cars pure and simple, but
to the railroad man they are divided

illustrated by a comparison of the
cars abroad than in any other man-
ner. In twenty-four countries of Ku
rope there are 369,9] 1 passenger cars
against 54,378 in this country. In
the same twenty-four countries there
are 3,443,532 freight cars against
•-'..•itiL'.'.ut freighl cars in the United
states. Passenger traffic is appar-
ently much more important in Eu-
rope than it is here, or perhaps it
would be more truthful to say that
our huge territory and vast expanse

RAILROADS. OP THE UNITED STATES

140

makes transportation of goods by
train a more vital necessity here
than anywhere else in the world.

FINANCIAL

The money invested in railroads,
the dividends paid, the gross and
net income, the wages and salaries
disbursed, form such incredible sums
that only a real appreciation of the
vastness of this country can make
their comprehension possible.

Perhaps the most amazing facts
are found in a comparison of Ameri-
can financial statistics with those of
Europe. Travelers have so dinned it
into the ears of Americans that as
a nation we are spendthrifts and
extravagant that it comes with the
force of a decided shock to learn
how far we have beaten the older
countries in railroading.

MILE COST

According to 1914 statistics,
America had 244,253 miles of rail-
roads as against Europe's 198,554.
The capital cost of European lines
was $25,059,644,xs9, while America
paid but $15,917,192,925. These fig-
ures reduce to $126,211 as the cost
per mile of line for Europe, which
includes not only the low cost of
railroads of Norway and Sweden,
but the exceptionally high costing
and magnificent road beds of Eng-
land. The United States figures re-
duce to $05,160 per mile of line. In
other words, we have some thirty
per cent greater mileage at some

forty per cent less cost than Europe,
and these are facts in face of a
scale of wages double that of the
European standard, and higher rates
for borrowed money.

CAPITALIZATION

According to the "Bureau of Rail-
way News and Statistics," 448 oper-
ating companies, covering 247.312
miles of line, of which 18S,247
were owned and 59,005 miles were
leased, reported a capitalization as
given at the bottom of the page.

NEW CAPITAL

In 1914 over $300,000,000 of new
capital was invested in extensions,
improvements and new construction.
But 1915, a year of great uncertain-
ty due to conditions abroad, saw less
than $100,000,000 similarly em-
ployed. What 1910 will show is as
yet unknown, but with the tremen-
dous increase in the business of this
country and the almost unprece-
dented call for transportation facil-
ities, it is scarcely to be doubted
that much new financing will be ar-
ranged.

VALUATION OF RAILROADS

When Congress appropriated
$50,000,000 to conduct an inquiry
into and to establish the actual phys-
ical valuation of American railroads,
many uninformed people dubbed the
national legislature wildly extrava-
gant. But four years have passed,
the end of the work is nowhere in
sight, and it may well not arrive

CAPITALIZATION OF 448 COMPANIES OPERATING 247,312 MILES OF LINE

IN 1915

Capital stock $7,277,410,880

Funded debt 10,466,465,240

Receivers' certificates 52,362,863

Total 188,247 miles owned $17,796,238,983

Rental 59,065 miles, $1 16,852, 303^ at 4J^ 2,596,717,844

Total 247,312 miles operated $20,392,956,827

Deduction

Railway stock owned $2,716,852,149

Funded debt owned 1,970,496,754

k Miscellaneous securities owned 2,525,950 4,689,874,853

Net capitalization, 1915 $15,703,081,974

Net capitalization per mile operated 63,495

Net capitalization per mile of track (379.344) 41.393

150

OUR COUNTRY AND its RESOURCES

until an additional appropriation is
made.

While no very exact figures are ob-
tainable, it is doubtful if the present
actual value of American railways
can be much less than the unthink-
able suiri <>f $22,000,000,000, which
would certainly not hear out any
charges of over-capitalization. More-
over, official figures of valuation of
railroads within certain areas, con-
ducted by several States, go far to
prove that roads are anything but
over-capitalized. For instance. State
valuations made in Washington
( L905 i gave the cost of reproduction
as 1!)4 millions, capitalization 161
millions. South Dakota (190S) cost
of reproduction 106 millions, capital-
ization 109 millions. Minnesota
i 1907) oust of reproduction 360 mil-
lions, capitalization 300 millions.
Wisconsin (1909) cost of reproduc-
tion 296 millions, capitalization 225
millions. Nebraska (1911) cost of
reproduction 327 millions, capitali-
zation L't;:; millions. New Jersey
i 1911 t cost of reproduction 374 mil-
lions, capitalization 333 millions.

WHO OWNS TITF RATUtOADS
Railroads are owned in two ways
— by those who purchase or other-
wise become possessed of stock, and
those who lend money to buy, build,
or extend railways, by the purchase
of bonds. In the final analysis, a
railway is owned by its stock hold-
ers, who owe the ruoney represented
by the outstanding bonds to tbe
bond holders, hut for ordinary pur-
poses of comparison a bond holder
is a part owner of a railroad, since
bis interest charges have a claim on
earnings prior to the stock dividend
claim. An exact census of stock
holders is not a possibility, for many
reasons, one of them being the fre-
quent (hourly) changes in owner-
ship. But according to the best re-
ports obtainable, there are some
623,000 stock holders for American
railroads, a figure almost double
that of the Interstate Commerce
Commission for 1182 roads in L904.
It would be wearisome to report
stock holders and increase for eveuy
road in the United States, but those
for twenty of the great roads, show-

STOCK HOLDERS IN TWENTY PRINCIPAL AMERICAN RAILWAYS,

1904 TO 1915

Name of Company
%

Pennsj l\ ania R. R

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe

New York Central and Hudson River. . . .

New York, New 1 1 a \ rii & Hurt ford

I fnion Pacific

( treal Norl hern

soui hern Pacific

Northern Pacific

Chicago, Milwaukee? & St. Paul

Baltimore <\: < >hio

Illinois < 'entral

Erie

( 'hicano & North-Western

Host on & Maine

Norfolk & \\ estern

Delaware & Hudson

Denver & Rio < Irandc

M issouri Pacific

Chesapeake & < >hio

Louis\ ille & Nashville

Total

increase since 1904, per cenl

Share holders

1904

1915

44,175

93,332

17,823

12.738

11,781

25.44U

10,842

26,589

14.25(1

30, 970

383

22, 103

2,424

32,143

368

20,413

5,832

19,230

7,132

36,568

9,123

10,963

4,309

5,868

4,109

10,394

7,402

8,076

2,91 1

8,815

3,819

7.1H7

2, 9 10

4,618

1,861

6.972

1,478

6,604

1,672

1,703

154,610

423,682

174.0%

UAILUOADS OF THE UNITED STATES

151

A POWDERED COAL BURNING LOCOMOTIVE

ing the increase from 1904 to 1915,
are given on page 150.

Figures for railway bond holders
are not obtainable, although the
Comptroller of the Currency report-
ed in 1913 that more than eleven
hundred millions of stocks and bonds
together were held by savings banks,
State banks, private banks and loan
and trust companies as assets.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

Railroad bookkeeping is so intri-
cate a subject and railroad financing
is so involved a matter, requiring
experts who spend years in the work
for its thorough comprehension, that
only general figures can be gone into
here. The Bureau of Railway Econ-
omics summarizes the income ac-
count as on page 152, including only
Class I. roads.

MISCELLANEOUS FINANCIAL

The railroads of the United States
pay a generous proportion of the na-

tion's taxes. The official figures for
1914 show that the huge sum of
$1^0,531,575 was turned into the
various treasuries from all the rail-
roads, a percentage of 4.01 of the
earnings. The taxes amount to
$."(71! per mile of road, more than
double the tax of 1900 and almost
three times the tax of 1890 when
$199 was the tax per mile. The
relative proportion of tax to earn-
ing capacity, however, has not risen
so fast. In 1S90 2.9G per cent of
earnings were paid in taxes, while in
1914 the amount had only increased
to 4.61 per cent as above. In New
Jersey railroads pay $3,068 per mile
of line, in South Dakota but $255.

It is interesting to compare the
relative prices paid for fuel and the
amount expended during the last fif-
teen years, for the measure of fuel
used is a measure of the power ex-
pended. Unofficial figures for 1915
place the cost of locomotive fuel at

HELD GATE BRIDGE, OVER THE EAST RIVER, LONGEST ARCH BRIDGE YET BUILT

152 < >UB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

$215,359,532, which is considerably road receives comes from the sources

less than the official figures for 1914, shown on page 153.

which are $242,800,799. Fifteen public service

years ago but $90,593,965 was paid Passengers

for fuel, although the cost of coal ,„, *, „ 0/w,,wwv

per ton at the mine was $1.04 in Tbere av* upwards of 3,000,000

1900 and but $1.18 in 1914. The TM,lla,:e ***** f territory in the

1915 cost was less, compared with '"nolo ,eS *£? m°™ ^

operating expenses, than at any time 1^.000.000 people If every man

for fifteen years, which may indi- ™n, *?* ,clnld m tlu\ l '',' ^

cate that the new campaign for econ- States had taken a journey in 1915,

omy of operation and coal saving has according to unofficial figures, that

had a visible effect 3£u™?y woul<* have0 bee* one tof

slightly more than .!.!.•> miles. Ac-

the hailkoai/s money cording to the Interstate Commerce

Every one hundred dollars a rail- Commission figures for 1914, the

RAILWAY INCOME, FISCAL YEAR, 1915:

Railway operating revenues $2,870,913,815

Railway operating expenses 2,020,823,953

Net operating revenue 850.089,862

Railway tax aeeruals 133,219.085

Uncollectable railway revenues 649,921

Railway operating ineome 716,220,856

Miscellaneous operating income 1,874.357

Total operating ineome 718,095,213

Non-operating income 237,368,878

Gross income 955,464.091

Deductions from gross income:

Interest on funded debt 386.483,143

Interest on unfunded debt 28,401,357

All other deductions 227,589,566

Total deductions 642.474,066

Net income 312,990,025

Disposition of net income:

Dividend appropriations 169.563,440

Income appropriated for investment in physical property 20,807,042

( >ther Income appropriations 12,890,736

Total appropriations of income 203, 261.218

Balance to credit of profit and loss 109.72S.807

The source of revenue ami tin- disposition is shown in the following

tabic :

RAILWAY OPERATING REVENUES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915:

Freight $1,977,402,839

Passenger service train revenue 783,401 J

Passenger 629. 155.489

Mail 56,949,414

Express 68,942,809

All Other rail-line transportation 36.718,310

Total rail-line transportation 2,797,522,501

Wain- line transportation 13.034. 048

incidental operating revenue 5s.os9 968

Joint facility credit balance 2,266.698

Total operating revenues $2,870,913,815

RAILWAY OPERATING EXPENSES, FISCAL YEAR, 1915:

Maintenance of way and structures $363,902,819

Mai no •nance Of equipment 196,066, 194

Traffic 59.394.183

Transportation rail-line 1,()02. 619.070

Transportation water-line 8,173,995

Miscellaneous operations 22,869,188

( ieneral expenses 74,143.669

Transportation for investment — Cr 6,945,165

Total operating expenses $2,020,823,953

KAILKOAI>S OF THE UNITED STATES

1.-,:;

average journey per person was
33.61 miles for Class I. and II.
roads only.

The 32,327,4(50.000 theoretical pas-
sengers who were carried one mile
in 1915 each paid 2.023 cents for the
privilege, and the 277,232.653,000
tons of freight, also carried one
mile, cost 7.3S mills per mile for the
hauling !

The table on page 154, aranged by
the Bureau of Railway News and
Statistics, gives the official figures for
1914 and the unofficial figures for 1915
of both freight and passenger service.

In 1915. 961,000,000 passengers
were carried. Passenger trains
rolled up the enormous mileage of
607,000,000— a distance which would
carry a passenger three and one-
quarter round trips to the sun and
back again ! There were an average
of 53 passengers to every passenger
train, and the nine million and some
passengers paid enough to make a
passenger revenue of $654,000,000.
more than double the revenue of
fifteen years ago and at only a min-
ute increased cost per mile, the 1900
figures being $0.0203 per mile.

THE RAILROAD DOLLAR
Where it comes from :

Passengers 22.20

Products of Mines 23.86

Manufactures 15.10

Products of Agriculture 11.72

Products of Forests 7.00

Products of Animals 4.15

Merchandise 4.32

Miscellaneous freight 3.32

Mail 1.97

Express 2.37

Miscellaneous 3.99

Every one hundred dollars a railroad disburses is spent for these pur-
poses in these amounts :

Lahor $43.20

Fuel and locomotive supplies 8.12

Material 16.90

Loss and damages 2.22

Taxes 4.72

Dividends and surplus 5.00

I'.etterments 1.08

Rent of leased roads 3.97

Interest 14.79

£/ ^ ^ Xs

154

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

FEEIGUT

In 193 1. Class I. and II. roads
moved 85,555,053 tons of the prod-
ucts <if agriculture, 23,763,262 tons
of animals. 539,255,980 tuns of min-
ing products, 108,506,272 tons of for-
est products, 135,175,536 tons of
manufactured products, 36,519,321
tons of merchandise and :;s.447.."ii;7
tons of miscellaneous freight.

These statistics show the some-
what curious result that over 55 per
cent of freight moved in this coun-
try is from mines and that both for-
est products and manufacturing
products form a greater percentage
of the weight moved than do ag-
ricultural products. Reducing to a
unit hasis official figures show that
in 1914, there were 288,319,890,210
Ions of freight carried one mile,
equivalent to the transportation of
a fleet of Lusitanias numbering
6,86 1. Toil ; iii other words, an un-
thinkable number.

MAIL AND EXPRESS

In addition to the public service
of moving passengers and freight.

the railways haul the mail and the
express, two activities which are at
the very lied rock of modern busi-
ness. The nation pays to the rail-

CLASS OF FREIGHT MOVED. 1914

roads the sum of $57,973,106 yearly
(1915 figures, Bureau of Railway

News and Statistic-si for carrying
the mail, and the express companies
$69,7S4,40s for carrying express, a
figure by the way, which is declining

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF PASSENGER AND FREIGHT SERVICE FOR
THE YEARS EXDINd JUNE 30, 1915 AND 1014

Miles Represented

Passenger Service

Passengers carried

Passengers carried 1 mile

Passengers carried l mile per mile of line

M ileage of revenue passenger trains

Vverage number of passengers in train
Average journey per passenger, miles. . .

Passenger car miles

Average passengers per car

Preigb r Service

Number of ions reported carried

Tons carried l mile

Tonscarried I mile per mile of line

M ileage of revenue freight t rains

\ \ erage number of tons In trains

T\ pica] haul of a\ erase railwaj . miles. . .

Mileage of revenue mixed trains

Total revenue train mileage

Total mileage freight cars
Vverage tons per car (loaded and emptj

Total locomotive miles

L915

Bureau Figures

1
L'77

247,312

961,351,000

,327,466,000

130,715

572,103.000

56.5

33.6

,203 881,000

L0.09

779,512,000

232,653,000

1,120,983

548 363 ooo

505

156

35,022,000

155, 189,000

935, 155,000

1 3 . 55

L, 562,839,000

1914 .
< Uncial Figures

245,624

1,053,139,000

35,258, 198,000

1 1 1,278

602,388,000

56

33 61

283,000

lit 39

1,976,138,000

288,319,890,000

1,176,923

605.923,

452

146

32,565.000

1,242,080,000

20,796,895,000

13 86

1,689,748,000

t Exclude returns from switching and terminal companies, included in 1915, 1914
< lass 1. and II. only

RAILROADS OF THE rXTTKI) STATES

155

--■

^mm m <*-"*■*

*t

m-.

H5?^r=>

«■«:.

-r ,,,; 3^| *

M~'^

[jW^^-^V^^P^'

-

TRIPLEX COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE— ARTICULATED MALLET TYPE-ERIE

RAILROAD
(Huilt by P.nlilwin Locomotive Works)

yearly, due to the expansion of par-
cel post.

HUMAN RELATIONS

If we consider the average family
as consisting of three people, then
there are 33,333,333 adult males in
the United States. One man in every
nineteen is a railroad employee.

EMPLOYEES

According to the official figures
for 1914, there are L,695,483 persons
employed by the railroads, or 685
employees for every mile of line.
These include for each mile of line
G general and ether officers. 35
clerks, 15 station agents, GG station
men. 25 engineers, 26 firemen, 19
conductors, 55 other trainmen, 23
machinists. 29 carpenters. 103 shop-
men, IS section foremen, 135 track-
men, 15 switch tenders, crossing
tenders and watchmen, 16 telegraph
operators and dispatchers and 99
other employees.

COMPENSATION

The railroads disbursed in 1014
$1,373,422,472 to all employees. Of
the employees receiving this huge
sum — about what it cost to run the
United States Government, including
the army and navy — the general and
other officers, of course, received the
largest average daily compensation,
of $8.40.

Next highly paid are the engi-
neers, with an average daily wage of
$5.24, followed by conductors, aver-
age daily wage $4.47; machinists,
average daily wage $3.27; firemen,
average daily wage. $3.22; trainmen,
average daily wage. $3.09, down to
trackmen with an average daily
wage of $1.59. It is a peculiar com-
mentary on the disproportionate re-
lation between responsibility and
pay, to learn that the average daily
wage of carpenters in railroad work
is $2.66 and that of telegraph ope-

REPLICA OF THE "DE WITT CLINTON," POSED BEFORE THE MOVING PICTURE
CAMERA. THE ORIGINAL WAS THE THIRD LOCOMOTIVE IN AMERICA

156

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

A TRAVELING CHAPEL ON WHEELS. CHAPEL CAR "ST. PETER"

rators and dispatchers but $2.56.
According to well digested statis-
tics, in 2<> years the pay of engineers
has increased 45 per cent, firemen
58 per cent, conductors 47 per cent,
other trainmen 63 per cent. The
average pay per year of railroad em-
ployees of all classes is $825, with
a road passenger engineer averaging
over $2,000, a road passenger fire-
man averaging over $1,200, and a
road passenger conductor averaging
over $1,700 per annum. Altogether
twenty-two classes of employees re-
ceive over $1,000 a year.

FOREIGN PAY

The question is of intense interest
to the general public, because of the
effect upon the public of railroad la-
bor dissatisfaction, and the economic
effect of strikes. Without going into
any controversy between employees
and roads or in any way taking
sides, it is nevertheless interesting
to compare conditions here with
those abroad. In (his country, let it
be noted, the ratio of compensation
paid employees to gross earnings is
13 per cent. The ratio of compen-
sation of employees to the operating
expenses is <il per cent and the
total ratio Of all expenses and taxes

to gross earnings is 7."» per cent. Now
compare with the table on page 158.

ACCIDENTS

The American people have become
so accustomed to frightful railroad

accidents thai they have accepted

largely without question the state-
ments too often made that no rail-

roads are so unsafe as those of the
United States. In the year 1915,
325 railroad companies operated
161,948 miles of line, according to
the Bureau of Railway News and
Statistics, with absolutely no fatal-
ities to passengers in train accidents.
This mileage is very nearly that of
Europe excluding England. To car-
ry 18,083,050,000 passengers a mile
and kill none of them is a real
record.

In 1S91 the United States had
161.275 miles of road, carried 531,-
1S3.D0S passengers and killed 110
of them. In 1915, roads operating
a greater mileage, with 40 per cent

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHAPEL CAR

RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES

157

more tra Sic and double the freight
traffic, killed none. Three com-
panies have a flawless record for
twelve years, 23 for eleven years, :;'.»
for ten years, 48 for nine years, <;.'!
for eight years, 77 for seven years,
87 for six years, 107 for five years,
136 for four years, 178 for three
years, 232 for two years, and 11
companies in 1915, 23 in 1914, and
15 in 1913 killed only one passenger
each.

Ou all roads and in all ways,
there were 19G passengers killed and
10,279 injured in 1915. Employees
on duty were killed to the number
of 1.594 and 38,060 were injured.
Two hundred and fifteen employees
not on duty were killed and 840 in-
jured, and trespassers, persons not
trespassers but not connected with
or traveling upon railways and rail-
road industrial (accidents not in-
volving train operation made up the

balance of the grand total of 8,621
persons killed and 162,040 injured.
If you want to know exactly what

PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES PER MILE
OF LINE

your chances are of being killed in
a railroad accident, supposing fu-
ture conditions are similar to those

A NEWSPAPER PLANT INSTALLED IN A BAGGAGE CAR

A complete photo-engraving plant, composing and pressroom was provided. This was the

publicity car for an automobile tour

L58

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

SUMMARY SHOWING NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES COMPENSATION' \ND

AVERAGE YEARLY PAY OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN

COUNTRIES AND OF JAPAN

Country

Miles of
Railway

Employees.
Number

Compensation
per year

Average

per year

Ratio to
Revenues

♦United Kingdom (1913). . .

German Empire (1913)

Austria (1912)

23,r,'.»]

37,894

14,185

13,303

41,622

24,915

8,387

3,148

2,333

8,659

2,200

2,926

5,348

1 643, 135

786,466

280.220

147.194

771 938

442 709

148 569

15 3s6

13.198

48,330

34.4 22

70.364

112.087

S170.028.613

321 639 536

92 439 338
44 218 935

163 149 009

115 125 40O

52 65 1 .655

16 697. 901

4.644.727

is. .",78.561

8.523,168

17.991,907

12,655,621

$279
109
330
300
211
260
354
368
352
384
248
256
113

27 2
38 0
40 1

Hungary ( 1912) . .

38 3

Russia (1910)

32 7

France (1908)

34 4

Italy (State, 1912)

Switzerland (All, 1913)

t Denmark (State, 1914)

Sweden (1912)

45.2
33 . 5
30.7
42 8

Belgium (State, 1911)

Japan (1914)

22 :;

* Of British railway employees, 49,584 are classed as boys, and the compensation
does not include administrative staff.
t Excludes laborers.
X Census 1913. latest reported.

of 1915, the method is simple enough.
As there were 389,487,542 passengers
carried a mile in safety for everj
one killed in 1915, merely divide
that number by the miles of your
journey to find your proportionate
chance. Tims, if you happen to be
going a distance of 389 miles, your
chances are just oue iu a million of

i ?

re
24

being killed. Ask any accident in-
surance company what the hazard-
are in walking a city's streets and
see how safe American railroads
really are!

STREET RAILWAYS

The term is inclusive of what is
commonly known as trolley line de-

i — .

1890 1895 1900 I905 I9IO

DEATH PER BILLION PASSENGER MILES
THE PALLING RATE OF FATALITY IN AMERICAN RY TRAVEL

RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES

159

fiff

i

THE HAZARDOUS LIFE OF A RAILROAD
LINEMAN

velopinent and the statistics given
include not only city and suburban
but interurban electric roads. The
authority is the United States Cen-
sus for 1912, which provides the
most recent facts obtainable for the
industry.

Nine hundred and seventy-five op-
erating companies control 41,064
miles of track. Of this mileage 38,-
95S miles are for overhead trolley,
the balance being conduit and all
other forms of electrical propulsion
including storage battery and third
rail.

City and suburban lines utilize 24,-
699 miles of track and interurban
roads 16,365 miles.

In 1912 these roads carried 12.-
135,341,716 passengers. Not all
these produced revenue, 2,423,018,-

024 riding on transfers and 165,869,-

025 being carried free.

The street railways possess 94,-
016 cars, of which 76.162 are pas-
senger cars, 7.704 are express.
freight, mail and baggage cars, and
10,060 work cars, snow plows,
sweepers, etc.

Two hundred and eighty.two thou-

sand four hundred and sixty-one em-
ployees of all sorts have a pay en-
velope holding $200,890,939 per
year, and it is worthy of note as
showing the tremendous demand for
this variety of transportation that
the number of people so employed
was 100 per cent greater in 1012
than in the previous census of 1002.

The gross income of the 075 com-
panies in 1012 was $585,030,517, of
which $51,650,117 was paid out in
dividends. It is interesting to note,
in view of the agitation for muni-
cipal ownership and the cry contin-
ually going up that street railways
make huge sums of money by crowd-
ing ears, that the average passenger
revenue is 5.27 cents, of which ."..40
cents must go for operating ex-
penses.

The greatest street railway mileage
is in New York State, which posses-
ses 4,605 miles against 4.117 in Penn-
sylvania and 4.060 miles in Ohio.
The least mileage is in New Mexico,
which possessed 10.6 miles in 1012,
followed by Nevada with 11.27.

Copyright Underwood & Underwood

PAINTING THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE

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INTERIOR OF MAIL CAR

CHAPTER XIII.
THE POSTAL SERVICE

NO part of the United States
Government comes into such
close and intimate touch with
its people as the Pest Office Depart-
ment. No function of our govern-
ment is more important ; indeed, our
whole commercial life is bound up
with the Post Office, and a failure
of the mail service would mean a
domestic tragedy compared to which
a state of war would be trivial.

York. Boats, stage-coaches, pony
express — the means of transporta-
tion available meant delays, uncer-
tainty and expense. To-day two
cents will carry an ounce of letter
to the Philippines, to Alaska, to
Porto Rico, to Canada, to Mexico,
to Great Britain and some countries
of Central and South America, and
five cents will take half an ounce
anywhere in the civilized world.

THE MOTORCYCLE COLLECTOR CAN
COVER GREAT DISTANCES

THE AUTO IS A SPEEDY COLLECTOR

These facts, generally recognized by
common consent, have been enacted
into laws governing the mail service
which make "U. S. Mail" sacred
property, and the integrity of the
service a national pride.

This is not the place for a histori-
cal n'siunr of the service since its
formation by the Continental Con-
gress, but a word or two of the de-
velopment of the system may not
be out of place. In 1792 it cost
seventeen cents to send a letter the
distance between Boston and New

Beginning with a pony express for
letters only, the Post Office Depart-
ment has extended its activities to
meet the needs of advancing civili-
zation until its ramifications and
activities, while clearly defined, have
broadened far beyond the mere car-
rying of letters.

First of these broadening horizons
was the registry system by which
loss of valuables is practically neg-
ligible. City Delivery in all large
cities has saved literally billions of
dollars worth of time. "Special De-

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

102

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

livery" has Saved special time when
special time is of great value — and
.ir ;i minimum cost. This was in-
troduced in 1885 — the faint forerun-
ner of another system of delivery
which has had most tremendous and
far-reaching effects. This, of course.
is Rural Free Delivery — the familiar
"R. 1". D." which has so altered
country living conditions as to make
them unrecognizable to those who

sidered to have been spent for two
cent stamps, then there was pur-
chased and presumably used in 1915
the unthinkable total of 12,801,850,-
4L.'t; two cent stamps, enough for
every man. woman and child in the
United States to use on 128 letters
each during the year!

Of course the $256,037,008.51 re-
ceived for stamps and stamped pa-
per, which was !>2 per cent of the

NUMBER <>F POST OFFICES liY CLASSES, JULY 1, 1911 TO 1915

Year

First
class

Second
class

Presidential
Third
class

Total

Fourth
class

Total

1911

444

157

485
52 1
533

1,907
1,940
1.979
2,081
2,138

5,643
5,830
5,942
6,044

(1.2-49

7,994

8,227

S.406
8,646
8,920

51,287
50.502
19,614

48.1 lit
17,160

59,281

1912

1913

1914

1915

58,729
58,020
56.810
50.380

knew them best. Next came the
Postal Savings system, and finally
Parcel Post, so thai our Post Office
Department is now a banking insti-
tution, an express company, a special
carrier, an insurance office, a dis-
seminator of knowledge (second
class mail privilege), and an en-
courage!" of thrift and business as
well as a mere carriage institution
for folded pieces of paper.

POST 0FF1< I s

The numerical facts about our
postal system are fairly staggering
in their size. We have i Report for
year ending June •".<». 1915) 56,! 380
i Mist offices, exclusive of 589 in the
Philippines, under War Department
jurisdiction, and II on t lie < 'anal
/.one. Posi offices are slowly de-
creasing in Dumber, due to the ex-
tension of the R. 1''. I ». service, as
shown in the table above.

STAMPS

There are no statistics available
for the number of letters transported
or delivered, for obvious reasons.
Bui if tbe total money expended for
stamps and stamoed paper lie con-

postal revenue, was not all for two
cent stamps, but the comparison
stands.

SECOND CLASS .MAIL

Second class mail, consisting of
newspapers and periodicals mailed
by the publishers at the uniform rate
of a cent a pound for all distances
except within the county of publi-
cation, where the postage is free,
amounted to 1,109,285,785 pounds.
Ten Lusitarlias would not weigh so
much, nor would five thousand loco-
motives, all over the average size
used to pull trains! What this
service means to us. as an educa-
tional matter, is beyond computa-
tion.

I' \KlT.I, POST

It is impossible to say of any one
work of the Post Office Department,
"This is the most Important,"
Whether parcel post or second class
mail privilege, postal savings or
first class mail, foreign mail or R.
F. D. is most vital is hardly im-
portant here. But certainly the es-
tablishment and successful working
of tbe parcel post system is not
least important among those great

164

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

improvements the Postal Service has
made within recent years.

Exact statistics of parcels carried
arc not obtainable. To enable the '
department to ascertain the growth
of the service as well as its revenues
and costs, periodical counts have
been made and detailed information
obtained at all first and second
class offices and at a number of rep-
resentative third and fourth class
offices of the number of parcels
handled, the amount of postage
thereon, and the costs of the service.
Statistics in the minutest detail are
compiled from these data for the .10
largest offices, which represent ap-
proximately one-half of the entire-
postal business. The latest count.
from October 1 to 15. 1915, shows
that 30,939,730 parcels were mailed
at these offices, on which the postage
amounted to $1,856,602.82, and the
total weight atr^regated 41,815,452
pounds.

These statistics indicate that the
Tostal Service is now handling
1,000.000,000 parcels annually. Dur-
ing the fiscal year 18.000.000 parcels
were insured, an increase of 34.78
per cent over the preceding year.
The number of parcels sent ('. O. D.
during the year was over 4.000.000,
an increase of 57.66 per cent over the
number handled the previous year.

...

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Number of Routes in Thousands
Appropriation in Millions of Dollars

R. F. D. ROUTES AND APPROPRIATION

RURAL FREE DELIVERY

Since its establishment In Is'.'"
the R. F. I>. business has grown by

FlSI \ 1 Y BAB

Routes

Increase in

routes

Appropriation

1897

82

1 53

412

1,259

3,761

8,298

15,119

24,566

32,110

35.700

37.728

39,277

10,628

11.079
41.050
42.199

12,805
43.652

13,877

71
259
847
2,502
4,537
6,821
9,447
7,544

3.050

L.962

1,549

1,351

1 5 1
577
543
606
847
225

S40.000

IS'. IN

50,250

1899

150.032

1 900

450.000

1901 . .

1,750.790

[902

4,089,075

1903

8,580,364

1(10 1

12,926,905

L905

21,1 lo.f.oo

L906

1907

25,828,300

28.200.000

1908

34,900.000

L909

1910

35.073.001)
37.200.000

I'll I

3S S00.000

I'M"

42,790,000

1911

17.000.000
17 500.000

I'M 5

53 ooo.ooo

THE POSTAL SERVICE

165

Photo International News Servici

CONVEYING MAIL IN A GREAT RAIL-
WAY TERMINAL

leaps and bounds. Begun with
eighty-two tentative and experimen-
tal routes, it now has close to fifty
thousand. Its initial appropriation
was $40,000. the present appropria-
tion is ,$53,000,000, most of which, of
course, goes to pay the 43,718 car-
riers, the average pay of whom is
not quite $1,100 annually.

The table on page 164 gives in
short form the increase in routes.

POSTAL SAVINGS

In January, 1911, the United
States made its Post Office Depart-
ment a great bank, by beginning the
Tostal Savings System. By it peo-
ple of small means are encouraged
to save, are provided with a quick
and easy means of banking, without
any red tape, are assured the safety
of their money with all the resources
and credit of the T'nited States, and
are given the privilege of converting
savings into United States bonds
without trouble, risk or the payment
of premiums.

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L66

OUR COUNTRY AND IIS RESOURCES

• in June .".,». 1915, postal savings
deposits aggregated $65,684,708, a
gain of $22,240,437, or 51.2 per cent,
compared with amount on deposil
at the close of the previous fiscal
year. The Dumber of depositors in-
creased from 388,513 t" 525,414, a
gain of 136,903, or 35.2 per cent.

The growth of the system from the
time of it- inauguration on January
.".. 1911, lo the close of the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1915, is shown
in the table on page 165.

POS I At. SAVINGS BONDS

A depositor may exchange de-
posits in amounts of $20 and multi-
ples for 2% per cent 1'nited States
postal savings registered or coupon
bonds. Postal savings bonds were
issued during the year to the amount
of $1,799,040. Since the beginning of
the service $6,260,360 in registered
and $1,046,740 in coupon postal sav-
ings bonds have been issued.

DEPOSITORS
Depositors born outside of the

United States constitute 58.7 per
cent of the total number of deposi-
tors and own $47,161,620, or 71.8
per cent of the total postal savings
deposits. Natives of Russia lead
with 20.7 per cent of the total pos-
tal savings deposits to their credit :
follow in order natives of Italy, 14.2
per cent. Great Britain and its col-
onies 8.8 per cent, Austria 8.7 i>er
cent. Hungary 4..*; per cent. Ger-
many 4.1 per cent. Sweden -.'J. per
cent, and Greece, 1.8 percent Other
foreign-born depositors owned 7 per
cent of all postal savings deposit-.

RAILWAY MAIL

To handle this part of the subject
in a paragraph is an impossibility.
Railway post offices are in service on
216,439 miles of lines and travel
322,079,796 miles a year. An army
of 34 officers, 114 chief clerks and
19,351 railway clerks accomplished
during the year 8,644,285,506 distri-
butions and redistributions of pieces
of first-class and 5,212,698,814 dis-

THE TRANSPORTATION OF MAIL BY AEROPLANE IS AN ACCOMPLISHED FACT

Note the Mall Bags

THE POSTAL SERVICE

KIT

tributions and redistributions of
pieces of second, third and fourth-
class matter, a total of 13,856,-
984,320 distributions and redis-
tributions of pieces, exclusive of
registered matter, an increase of 3.35
per cent over the previous year.

Of registered matter there were
handled and rehandled in transit
57.14s.G4S packages and cases. 1.-
643.657 registered pouches, and 792.-
950 inner registered sacks. In ad-
dition, clerks made up and dis-
patched 1,005,562 registered pouches
and inner registered sacks : received

122.447 lead-seal sack jackets: made
up and dispatched 1,784 Lead-seal
sack jackets containing 20,265
pieces; and received and opened 11,-
451 lead-seal sack jackets containing
94,367 pieces.

Of the 13,856,984,320 pieces of
mail matter distributed and redis-
tributed. 13,sr>4.405,564 pieces, or
99.9S per cent, were distributed and
redistributed correctly.

DISTANCE OF MAIL TRAVEL

The Postal Service sends its mail
carriers of all classes over 12.725

ROLLER SKATES IN THE CHICAGO POST OFFICE SAVE TIME AND SHOE LEATHER

and opened 813,266 registered
pouches and inner registered sacks;
handled and rehandled in transit 2,-
391,377 registered-package jackets;
made up and dispatched 803,779 reg-
istered-package jackets, containing
."..".I ir..412 pieces ; received and
opened 722,517 registered-package
jackets containing 5,047,663 pieces;
handled and rehandled in transit

routes. which aggregate 285,853
miles in length. All carriers travel
annually 537,714,199 miles, equal to
traveling around the earth 21,508
times. Should one man make this
journey at the express train rate of
fifty miles an hour, it would take
him 1,230 years to cover the (lis
tance, supposing he never stopped to
rest !

168

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

H(>\V THE POST OFFICE SPENDS ITS MONEY

! T E M 9

Compensation to assistant postmaste.

and clerks

Transportation of mails on railroads.

Rural delivery

City delivery

Compensation to postmasters

Railway Mail Service

Transportation of mails on star routes

Rant, light, and fuel

Railway post office car sen ice ....
Transportation of mails — wagon serv

Transportation of foreign mails

Mail-messenger service

Special delivery service

Manufacture of stamped envelopes. . .

Post-office inspectors

Transportation of mails on steamboats
Transportation of mails — Pneumatic

tube service

Transportation of mails — electric and

cable cars

Manufacture of postage stamps

Freight on stamped paper and mail

bags.

Mail bags, etc

Manufacture of postal cards

Miscellaneous items at first and second

class post offices

Canceling machines

Twine and tying devices

Mail transportation in Alaska — star.
Payment of money orders more than

1 year old

Stationery

Supplies, money-order service

Supplies, city delivery sen ice

Indemnities, domestic registered mail.

Office appliances

Village delh cry sen ice

Shipment of supplies

Letter balances and scales

Mailbag repair shops — labor

Official and registry envelopes

Facing slips, etc

Miscellaneous, items, 1st and 2d clas

post offices purchases

Mail-lock repair shops labor

stamping appliances

Rent of buildings. Post Office Dept..

supplies, Rural Delivery Service. . . .

Balances due foreign countries

Indemnities, lost insured mail

Expendlt ures under 2 f smaller items of

appropriation (less than $20, OCX
each)

Total $2S9,199.978.75

On account of

the fiscal year

1915

So 1,246,246.92

50,192,241 .09

49,740,895.05

42,458.002 83

30,376,378 . 90

2.S.3N2.25S

7,822.300 OS

4,815,766 92

4,015.024 97

2,351,817.43

2,349,815.41
1,933.042.14
1,889,725.80
1,430.682.58
1,198,181 .66
927,049.76

882,583.19

719.463.71
652,664 . 40

428,127.95

352,203 . 22
334,549.04

290,025 78
251,212.02

249.966. SI
228.367 . SS

20S.023 6.",
134.192.06
133,102.03

129.S6S 46
128,039 39

1 16,273.28

106,366 91

98,647.09

94.001 82
93.071 91
76,017.26
74.409.52

73,95 1 63

36.726 66

35,787 92

24.0OH OH
12,843 89

! 570 91

Kit. 1st <>.-

On account of

the previous

fiscal year

$70,301 91

4,544,732 .87
48.167 82
35.406 9(
23.767 02
25,984 . 33

956,227.92
42,158.26

824,289 . 20

328,908.48
811.023.55
190,224.59
189 . 36
141,104.58
30,978.06
148,573.93

80,691 .68

82,415 33
76,091 88

184,631.24

64,572 25
36,425 3 1

48.416.65
6,872.96

73,212.44

8,741.61
39,583.90
44.535 73
20,292.68

30.256 42

3,316.45

29,748.96

10.615 11

273 00

1 1.67(1 62

5.6S3 2S

19,628 97
28.00

6.216 33

8.200.00

3,9 11 II
98,873. 5S
69,852.48

59,1 87. 2>
89,346,047. 6;

Total

$53,316,548.83

54,736,973.96

49,789,062.87

42.493.409.73

30,400,145.92

28,408,243 10

8,778,528.01

4,857,925.18

4,839,314.17

2,680,725.91
3,160,838.96
2,123,266 73
1,889,915. Hi
1.571,787.16
1.229,159.72
1,075,623.69

963,274.87

801,879.04
728,756.28

612,759.19
416,775.47
370,974 . 35

290.025.78
299,628.67

256.839.77
301,580.32

208,023 . 65

142.933.67

I 72,685. 93

17 1.404.19

148,332.07

1 16.529. 70

109,683.36

128.396.05

104.617.26

93,347.91

S7.6S7 SS

80,092 . 80

93,583.60
36.754 66
42.034.25
32,200 . 00
16,788.30
100,444 49
69,852.48

163,671.33

1298,546,026 . 42

THE POSTAL SERVICE

1<J!>

MAIL TEAMS LEAVING EOR THE TRAILS, INTERIOR OF ALASKA

CROSSING THE YUKON WITH MAIL AT TANANA MISSION

17U

olK COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

t.,->^'^(

WHERE THE POSTAL EXPENSES LIE

REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES

The total revenues of the Posl
office are $287,248,165.27, which rev-
enues arc from sale of stamps and
stamped paper, postage other than
stamps, foreign mails. Pox rents,
tines and penalties, receipts from
unclaimed letters, money orders and
postal savings.

Its expenditures are listed in de-
tail on page i'">s. because of the in-
tense interest of some of the small
items, and the light they throw on
the size of the work. Consider, for a
moment, the business which spends
over a quarter of a million dollars
a year in ticine, which needs t<> buy
over three hundred thousand dollars
worth of mail bags, which requires
a shop in mi nil bags which costs al-
most a hundred thousand dollars a
\ear for the lahur alone and needs
over one hundred and thirty thou-
sand dollars worth of stationery up-
on which to write letter- aboul car-

UNLOADING MAIL FROM AN OCEAN
LINER

rying letters, and some vague notion
of the huge extent of this greatest
of governmental activities may be
had.

Note.- — ■Previous years have
shown a surplus, not a deficit, and
1916 will show one. The deficit Of
ahout 12 millions for 1915 is directly
traceable to the falling off in re-
ceipts due to business depression
caused by the war.

Additional information regarding
the activities of the service may be
had from the reports of the Post-
master General, reports of each of
his four Assistants, report of the
Solicitor's office, or the Postal Guide,
a huge hook of postal information
sold by the Post Office to those who
need its information. The officials

Of the Post Office should he ad-
dressed Post oilice Department,
Washington, D. C.

Coiling Stamps Cutting Stamps

Printing Postal Cards Printing Money Orders

Separating the Stamps for Coiling Postal Card Stock

PRINTING STAMPS, MONEY ORDERS AND POSTAL CARDS

THE WH ITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

February 11, 1916

Sir:

It will be a signal service to our country
to arouse it to a knowledge of the great possibili-
ties that are open to it in the markets of the world.
The door of opportunity swings wide before us.
Through it we may, if we will, enter into rich fields
of endeavor and success. In order to do this we mu6t
show an effectiveness in industrial practice which
measures up to our best standards. We must avail our-
selves of all that science can tell us in aid of In-
dustry and must use all that education can contribute
to train the artisan in the principles and practice
of hi6 work. Our Industries must be eelf-reliant and
courageous because based upon certs in knowledge of
their task and because supported by the efforts of
citizens in the mills. If scientific research and
the educated worker go hand in hand with broad vision
In finance and with that keen self-criticism which is
the manufacturer's first duty to himself, the
fields will be few indeed in which American com-
merce may not hold, if it chooses, a primary place.
Youre very truly.

The Editor,

The Scientific American,

New York City.

A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES

CHAPTER XIV.

OUR NATURAL RESOURCES AND HOW THEY
ARE BEING DEVELOPED

Bv Hon. FRANKLIN K. LANK, Secretary of the Interior

PREPAREDNESS is generally
understood as the state of being
ready to light if necessary.
Bnt the finest army and the big-
gest navy in the world cannot con-
stitute real preparedness without
the complete mobilization of the in-
dustrial resources, which must be
behind them. Fortunately, such mo-
bilization means profit and develop-
ment for the country, in the absence
of any war or threat of war.

Industry and natural resources
are strained in time of war from
two great causes : it is more diffi-
cult to get supplies from abroad,
and the demand for what is at hand
is supernormal. With an increased
demand and a possible source" of
supply cut off, confusion follows un-
less a nation is industrially prepared
as to its natural resources to such
an extent that an abnormal demand
does not throw machinery into
disorder.

The natural resources of the
United States are the most remark-
able in the whole world. We have
made some mistakes in their devel-
opment, and private interests have
dominated public interests in some
cases. But we have seen our mis-
takes, corrected many of them, and
are now correcting others. That
this policy will continue, and that
nothing will interfere with the de-
velopment, conservation and proper
use of our enormous natural wealth,
should be the first aim of all who

have real preparedness, either for
war or peace, at heart.

Some months since I sought to
learn what we had with which to
meet the world which was teaching
us that war was no longer only be-
tween armed forces, but an endur-
ing contest between all the life
forces of the contesting parties,
their financial strength, their indus-
trial organization and adaptability,
their crop yields, and their mineral
resources, and that it ultimately
comes to a test of the very genius
of the peoples involved. To mo-
bilize even a great army is now
no more than an idle evidence of a
single form of strength if behind
this army the nation is not organ-
ized. An army is no longer merely
so many rifles and men, cartridges
and horses; but chemists and in-
ventors, mines and farms, automo-
biles and roads, airships and gas-
oline, barbed wire and turning
lathes, railroads and weather
prophets ; indeed, the complete ma-
chinery of an industrial nation's life.

With the exception of one or two
minor minerals, the United States
produces every mineral needed in
industry. We produce 6G per cent
of the world's output of petroleum,
GO per cent of its copper, 40 per cent
of its coal and iron, and 32 per cent
cf its lead and zinc. Tin in small
quantities is produced in Alaska and
platinum in Oregon, Nevada and
California, manganese in Virginia,

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

171

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Georgia, Arkansas and California;
but of these latter minerals, as of

nickel and some others of less im-
portance, our supply is altogether
inadequate for our consumption. We
can build a battleship, or an auto-
mobile (excepting the tires), a rail-
road or a factory, entirely from the
products of American mines and for-
ests. To replenish the soil we have
phosphorus in abundance, potash is
known to exist in the deposits of
Searles Lake. California, which,
however, is not yet commercially
available, and in alunite, where it is
combined with aluminium and de-
posits of which are found in several
states: and nitrogen can be extract-
ed from the air by cheap hydro-
electric power as is now done in
Germany, .Norway and elsewhere.
So that we can feed the earth and
keep it sustained. Our soil and cli-
mate are so varied that we can
produce all the grains, fruits, vege-
tables and fibers known to the tem-
perate zone, and some found in the
semi-tropics. And to crown all
these, we have water power that
can he made to generate perhaps as
much as 60,000,000 horse-power.

Our resources are not alone phy-
sical. Our ingenuity and ability to
design the machine to meet the need
have been proven a thousand times.
never more convincingly than in a
compilation of the most necessary
inventions and discoveries which the
world uses.

During the past fifty years the
people of the United states have
uttered two thirds of the revolu-
tionary, epoch-making inventions of
the world, from the telephone and
the incandescent lamp to Wright's
aeroplane ami bigh-speed tool steel.
Bach day we issue .-in average of
two hundred letters patent to Amer-
ican Inventors, and the number of
inventions is increasing with the
years.

How great a resource this char

acteristic might be in time of n I

has been amply demonstrated dur-
ing the present war ill Europe, which
has denied us imports formerly con-

sidered essential. Benzol and toluol,
foundation of aniline dyes and ex-
plosives, have heeii produced from
crude petroleum by a new process
discovered by Walter F. Rittman,
of the Bureau of Mines. That an
increase in the amount of gasoline
which is yielded by crude petroleum
is also possible by the Rittman pro-
cess is by no means the least of its
advantages.

Barium salts, needed for a va-
riety of purposes, were formerly
imported in large quantities, al-
though the raw material, barytes.
occurs in extensive deposits in this
country. We now manufacture these
salts in California, Colorado, Illi-
nois. Pennsylvania, New York. Ten-
nessee and West Virginia, the new
industry not only meeting the do-
mestic demand, but also furnishing
large quantities of barium com-
pounds for export, and we are sub-
stituting domestic barytes for the
foreign material for all purposes.
The substitution of sodium cyanide
for potassium cyanide in the treat-
ment of gold ores to the extent of
more than half a million pounds in
Colorado alone illustrates how the
potash shortage is being met
throughout the mining states. Tung-
sten, an absolutely essential consti-
tuent in high-speed tool steel, is
being mined at more points than
ever before to meet the special de-
mand in the steelworking industry;
a tin smelter has been erected to
reduce Bolivian ores; cobalt, which
is a recent and valuable acquisition
to the family of steel-alloying met-
als, is now being produced in quan-
tity sufficient to lower the market
price: American antimony is quoted
in the metal market for the first
time, and from Alaska alone more
antimony has been shipped this year
than was ever produced from Amer-
ican mines in any one year; cad-
mium, formerly imported, is now an
article of export : and in other minor
details full independence of foreign
supplies is being worked out. Prac-
tically all the crude platinum from
Colombia and pari of the New Zea-

OUB NATIONAL RESOURCES

IT.-,

land output is coming to the United
states for refining.

There is probably no one thing
we can do more vital to real pre-
paredness than a comprehensive
conservation and development of
our petroleum resources. In spite
of the alarmists, statistics show no
immediate prospect of a coal short-
age; the total coal produced in the
United States is a minute quantity
compared to the supply in sight.

But of petroleum we have no such
comforting statistics. How much of
it there is in the United States no
one knows. The Geological Survey
has made a maximum estimate of
twenty-three billion barrels, which
sounds like an inexhaustible supply.
But at the rate that it is now being
consumed in this country alone
(265,000,000 barrels a year) this
does not mean an indefinite supply,
and from the rapid exhaustion of
some fields it is manifest that there
can he no real approximation of the
oil in our lands. Whatever the sup-
ply, it should not be allowed in its
crude state to compete with coal as
fuel. Petroleum is a priceless re-
source, for it can never be replaced.
Trees can lie grown again on the
soil from which they have been
taken. But how can petroleum be
produced? It has taken the ages
for nature to distill it in her sub-
terranean laboratory. We do not
even know her process. We may
find a substitute for it, but have
not yet. It is practically the one
lubricant of the world to-day. Not
a railroad wheel turns without its
way being smoothed by it. We can
make light and heat by hydro-elec-
tric power, bui the great turbines
move on bearings that are smoth-
ered in petroleum. From it we get
the quick exploding gas which is to
the motor and the airship what air
is to the human body. To industry,
agriculture, commerce and the
1 Measures of life, petroleum is now
essential.

Among our natural resources
which should he developed as speed-
ily as possible to their full capacity

as a measure of preparedness for a
successful peace or the prosecution
of any war into which the future
may draw us, are our wonderful
water powers. Among the strange
things done by Benjamin Franklin
was to give an added and peculiar
value to the ledges of granite which
confine our Western streams and
turn them into dam sites, useful
for purposes of power generation.
How many of these are on public
land not yet disposed of no one
knows, but we have several hun-
dred under w i t h d r a w a 1 which
should be freed from withdrawal
and turned into use just as quickly
as possible; for. as the muscle of
man or horse can raise a few bar-
rels of water from the well to sup-
ply stock or irrigate the garden
patch, so can the power of the
stream, turned into electricity, be
used to raise millions of barrels of
water to irrigate alfalfa farms or
orchards. And this is now one of
the most common uses of electric
power in the West, and, in fact,
some of the Eastern States, where
irrigation is found of value. Then,
too, there is that mystifying miracle
of drawing nitrogen from the air
for chemical use, which can be done
only with great power, hut is being
done in Germany. Norway. Sweden,
France, Switzerland, and elsewhere,
by which an inexhaustible substi-
tute for the almost exhausted
nitrates of Chile has been found.
This is already a great industry in
Europe, and will of necessity be-
come greater in the United States
than elsewhere, because of our size
and need and opportunity. To in-
crease the yield of our farms and
to give us an independent and ade-
quate supply of nitrogen for the ex-
plosives used in war. we must set
water wheels at work.

Two resources of little or no value
alone, but t o g e t h e r constituting
wealth, we have in abundance. Land
without water is not available for
agriculture; water, master and not
servant, destroys property, indus-
try, wealth and lives.

176

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

.Many rivers, greal potentially as
sources of irrigation, in periodica]
overflows and Soods <!<i incalculable
damage. When we have conquered
our rivers and made them servo by
spreading <>ut at our will, not theirs,
over the land we wish to make blos-
som under the beneficent influence
of irrigation, we will have added to
our national preparedness a factor
the value of which cannot be
computed.

N te can take the yearly toll

of lives lost and property destroyed
by the furious and unrestrained
sweep of our rivers without realiz-
ing that the people of this country
cannot regard themselves as owning
this land, really possessing it. until
they have brought these waters un-
der subjection. And in doing this
they will literally create new land
by the millions of acres, land that
will support millions of people as
against the thousands which live
upon it to-day.

How these great works can be
carried on calls for constructive
thought, not merely on the engi-
neering side, but more immediately
upon the financial side as to those
ways and means by which the lands
reclaimed shall be made to bear in
some degree the burden of the ex-
pense. As to the funds which will
be needed, they mount into such
figures as to be staggering. And I

can see no hope that this work will
be adequately undertaken without
the Government advancing its credit
and investing directly some of its
own funds. We are conducting this
Government from day to day out of
current revenues. Only the richest
of people could pursue such a pol-
icy. No private enterprise attempts
it. No railroad system has been
built that way. Bui few of the
States now construct their highway
systems out of the year's revenues.

The permanent improvements which
the whole people undertake are a
legitimate charge against capital ac-
count, not against maintenance. A
commission to devise the ways and
means by which the States and pri-
vate land owners and the National
Government can co-operate in pay-
ing for the work done seems to me
a more needed body than one which
will report upon engineering
methods.

There are other sides to the ques-
tion upon which I have not touched:
the conservation and development of
our twenty-two millions of children,
the men and women of to-morrow;
the proper use of our forest reserves
and the wise enactment and admin-
istration of laws regarding timber
as well as minerals: the commercial
development of the incredibly rich
territory of Alaska, without its ex-
ploitation for the benefil of the few;
the broad visioned development of
inland waterways and rivers for
commerce; the problem of good
roads, which the automobile, and
especially the automobile truck, is
gradually working out

But enough has been said to indi-
cate that no country in the world
has better material with which to
work. I believe that conservation.
in its broadest term, means not the
mere saving of a resource against
the possible future need, hut making
the conserved resource as widely
useful to the greatest possible num-
ber in the shortest possible time
consistent with the elimination of
waste. It is along this highway
that this nation must move, in my
judgment, if it is to be economically,
commercially, humanely prepared
for any future, whether of peace or
war. which is to he commensurate
with the opportunities nature has
given us. and worthy the American
character.

CHAPTER XV.

THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF THE
UNITED STATES

Compiled from Reports of the U. S. Geological Survey
By A. H. FAY, Mining Engineer

THE magnitude of the mineral
industry may be illustrated by
taking into consideration the
number of men employed, as follows :
There are about 2,500 metal mine
operators, employing 175,000 men at
the mines and 50,000 men at the
metallurgical plants ; 6,000 coal
mines, employing 734,000 men at the
mines and 31,000 at coke ovens.
There are 350.000 men employed in
the production of pig iron and steel,
100.000 men employed at 3,000 quar-
ries, 76,000 men employed at brick
and tile works, 60,000 in the pottery
and clay industry, 69,000 in glass
works and 15,000 in the petroleum
industry.

Barring the production in 1913,
the total amount of minerals pro-
duced in the United States in 1915
was larger than in any previous
year, being approximately $2,373,-
000.000. or a gain of 12 per cent
over 1914. Of the total amount pro-
duced, the metallic products repre-
sented $987,500,000 in 1915 and $691.-
000,000 in 1914. an increase of 43
per cent. There was a slight de-
crease in the total non-metallic
products in 1915, as compared with
1914, the figures being $1,423,000.* 100
in 1914 and $1,385,000,000 in 1915.

CONTENTS

The mineral industry of the United

States

Precious metals

Gold, silver, platinum

Rase metals

Iron and iron ore, copper, lead, zinc,
aluminium and chromic iron ore
Miscellaneous metallic products

Antimony, bismuth, manganese, nickel,
quicksilver, radium, scrap metals,
tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium and
vanadium
Fuels

Coal, petroleum, natural gas
Non-metallic products

Barytes, cement, clay and clay prod-
ucts, fluorspar, gypsum, phosphate
rock, potash ; salt, bromine and cal-
cium chloride ; sulphur and sul-
phuric acid
Miscellaneous non-metallic products
Arsenic, asbestos, asphalt, borax, feld-
spar, fuller's earth, garnet, gems
and precious stones, graphite, lime,
magnesite, mica, mineral paints,
sand and gravel, slate, talc and
soapstone.
Quarry industry
Mine accidents

PRECIOUS METAJLS

Gold

The world's production of gold In
1914 was $400,000,000, of which the
United States produced $94,531,800. The
United States production in 1915 was
about $99,000,000. Gold is produced in
twenty States, California, Colorado,
Alaska, Nevada and South Dakota being
the largest producers. The placer mines
produce about 25 per cent and the dry
or silicious ores 66 per cent. The re-
maining 9 per cent is from copper, load
and zinc ores. The recent high prices
of copper, lead and zinc have stimulated
mining, and as a result there is an
increased gold production from this
source.

The gold dredging industry is being

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

ITS

OUR ntl'NTHV AND ITS RESOURCES

rapidly extended to large areas of low
grade sands and gravels in Alaska, Cali-
fornia, .Montana, Colorado, Idaho, Ore
gem and Nevada. In 1904 the amount
of gold produced by dredges was $2,000,-
000, while in 1014 it was more than
$12,500,000. Improved metallurgical
processes have resulted in obtaining a
recovery of more than 90 per cent of
the gold in the ore and made possible
the profitable mining of silicious ores
containing less than $3 per ton. The
average amount of gold recovered per
ton of ore from the deep mines of Alaska
in 1914 was $2.7S ; from California,
$5.46, and from South Dakota, $3.63.
Any invention that decreases the cost
of production increases the amount of
ore from which gold may be recovered.
It has the same effect as discovering
new deposits. It is not possible to give
an accurate estimate of the present sup-
ply of gold ores. There is ample, how-
ever, for many decades. One mine in
Alaska produces 6,000 tons of ore per
day and has more than 75,000,000 tons
of ore reserve's. This example is given
to show the magnitude of the operations
that are being planned and carried into
actual practice.

The exports of gold during the calen-
dar year 1914 were $222,616,156, while
the imports were $57,387,741.

Silver
The silver production of the world for
1914 was 225,000,000 ounces, of which
the United States produced one third, or
72,444,800 ounces, valued at $40,000.
000. The production of silver in 1915
was about 7 per cent less than in 1914.
Three fourths of the world's silver pro-
duction is derived from North America,
1 1 per cent from Europe and the remain-
der from Australia and Asia. The
United states contains vast quantities
of low grade complex ore-- containing
liver, copper, lead and zinc that are

now unworked l ause of the lack of

processes by which the metals can be
recovered at a profit. Investigations by
Federal bureaus are in progress to deter
mine the extent of these ores and the
possibility of developing processes for
treating them profitably, thus making
available large supplies of silver ore.
There Is every reason to believe that

North America will continue to retain
its position as the largest producer of
silver.

There are twenty-five States that pro-
duce silver, of which Nevada ranks first
with 15,877,200 ounces in 1914: Idaho,
12,573,800 ounces; Montana. 12,536,700
ounces: Utah, 11.722,000 ounces; Colo-
rado, 8,804,400 ounces, and Arizona,
4,4.".9.500 ounces. Other States produced
the remainder.

The exports of silver, principally to
Europe, China and India, in 1914 were
51,603,000 ounces, while the imports
were 25,959. 1S7 ounces.

I 'hi I'm inn

The principal production of platinum
in the United States is from California
and Oregon. The total amount produced
in 1915 from these two States was
741.91 troy ounces, valued at $23,538.
This is an increase of 171.91 ounces over
the production of 1914. There was also
produced by various platinum refineries
S,606 ounces of metals from the platinum
group, of which 1,587 troy ounces Is
probably of domestic origin.

The principal source of platinum is
Russia, which produced in 1914 241,200
ounces out of the world's production of
260,548 ounces. The production reported
for Russia in 1915 was 124,000 ounces,
while the world's production is esti-
mated at 143,898 ounces. The imports
for 1915 were about 10 per cent lower
than in 1914 and amounted to 69,000
ounces, valued at $2,768,688.

The United state. Geological Survey

and the Federal Bureau of Mines are co-
operating in a general study of placer
i'eposits in the United states with the
view of devising methods whereby plat-
inum may be recovered from the black
sands, which contain appreciable ipiau
tities of this valuable metal. Some of
tin1 gold ami copper ores contain plat-
inum in such minute quantities that it
is rarely detected in ordinary assaying.
The bullion obtained from these ores
contains sufficient platinum to make its
recovery an Important by product at

gold ami copper refineries. Until impor-
tant sources of supply are discovered in
tiie United states this country must de-
pend upon Russia for its needs.

THE MINERAL INIU'STKY

IT'.*

WORLD'S GOLD PRODUCTION

WORLDS SILVER PRODUCTION

ISO

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

BASE METALS

Iron Ore and Iron

The production of iron ore in the
United States in 1915 was 55,526,490
gross tons, or aliout 14,000,000 tons
greater than in 1914, and valued at
$1.85 per tun. With the exception of
the years 1910 and 1913 this is the
largest production. Of the total amount
produced, the Lake Superior region, in-
cluding Michigan, Wisconsin and Minne-
sota, produced 85 per cent, and the
Birmingham district, Alabama, 8.5 per
cent.

Comparatively little iron ore is im-
ported into the United states (1,350,500
tons in 1914), the total being about 2
per cent of the quantity mined each
year. The imports come mostly from
Cuba, Sweden, Canada, Newfoundland,
Spain and Chile. The exports of iron
ore from the United States (551, CIS
tons in 1914) nearly offset the imports,
so that the United States is self-sus-
taining as far as its production of iron
is concerned. In the production of iron
ore the United States ranks first, Ger-
many second, France third, Great Britain
fourth and Spain fifth.

The iron ore supply of the United
States of commercial grade as mined
at present is 7,500,000,000 tons, one
third of which is in the Lake Superior
district. While this amount seems enor-
mous, yet at the present rate of pro-
duction it is not difficult to foresee the
time when this quantity will be ex-
hausted. There are, however, important
factors which bear upon the prolonga-
tion of the ore reserves. Among these
are the development of metallurgical
processes whereby lower grade ores may
be utilized; Improved mining methods,
which will reduce waste; the discovery
of new ore deposits; tlie importation of
iron ore from Latin America and the
utilization of titaniferous iron ores.

The production of pig iron. Including
its various alloys, in 1915 was 29,916,-
213 gross tons, as compared with 23,-
.':.':l'.'j i l gross tons in 1914. Tin' average
value at tlie furnace, in 1915, was $13.21
per ton.

In the production of pig iron the
United States ranks first, followed in

order by Germany, Great Britain, France
and Russia. The world's production in
1913 was 78,026,869 long tons, while
in 1914 it was approximately 04,000,000
tons.

The imports of pig iron (138,903 tons
in 1914) and the exports (114,423 tons
in 1914) almost balance each other.

Copper

The production of copper in 1915 was
1,388,009,527 pounds as compared with
1,150,137,192 pounds in 1914, or an in-
crease of 21 per cent. The increase
since 1880 has been 25-fold. Arizona,
the largest producer of copper, leads
with 432,467,690 pounds, followed next
in order in 1915 by Montana, Michigan,
Utah, Alaska, Nevada, New Mexico and
California. The output in 1915 repre-
sents about 60 per cent of the world's
production. Europe produces 13 per
tent, Canada and Mexico 8 per cent,
South America and Cuba 7 per cent, and
all other countries 12 per cent.

The average price of copper for the
year 1915 was 17.5 cents per pound, as
compared with 13.3 cents in 1914. At
the beginning of the year the price was
relatively low, but started to advance
until a maximum of 20 cents a pound
was reached during the middle of the
year.

The apparent consumption of copper
in the United States in 1915 was 1,043,-
461, 9S2 pounds, as compared with 620,-
445,373 pounds in 1914. The exports of
copper bars, pigs, ingots, plates and
sheets during 1915 amounted to 681,-
953,301 pounds, as compared with 840,-
OS0.922 pounds for 1914.

The advent of the steam shovel and
the introduction of improved mining
methods and metallurgical processes
have so lowered the cost of production
that ores yielding only 1.60 per cent
copper are now worked at a profit. Such
ore even ten years ago would have been
considered as waste material. Leaching
processes have been installed by a num-
ber of companies and the results ob-
tained Indicate that even lower grade
ores may be worked. These improved
processes are a tremendous factor in
extending the life of the available sup-
plies of copper ores.

182

OUR COUNTS? AND ITS i;i:s< »ri;< -i:s

I. rail

The production of refined lead in 1915
was 550,055 short tons, as compared
with 542,122 tons in 1I»14. The value
(.1" the lead production in 1915 was $51,-
705,000, as compared with j?4ii. 286,000
in 1914. The Increase in the production
amounted to 1.3 per cent, while the
value of the lead produced increased
22. 3 per cent. Missouri leads in the
production of lead with 195,034 tons,
f..I]..w. m1 by Idaho with 160,680 tons.
The next in order of production is Utah
with 106,105 tons, followed by Colorado
with 32. .",52 tons. The other States pro-
duced small amounts varying from a
few tons to 4,000 or 5,000 tons. The
imports of lead for 1915 amounted to
51,496 tons, as compared with 28,338
tons in 1914. The price of lead at the
beginning of 1915 was 3.08 cents per
pound, while at the close of the year
it. was 5.40 cents. The average New
York price was 4.7 cents per pound, as
compared with 3.9 cents in 1914.

Under ordinary commercial condi-
tions, about 40 per cent of the lead is
used in the manufacture of white lead,
15 per cent for pipes, 7 per cent for
sheets, 10 per cent for shot and the
remainder for exports and other
purposes.

The normal exports of lead about
equal the lead produced from foreign

ores. However, the exports of dome-tic
lead in 1914 were 5s, 722 short tons and
sT,n9L' tons in 1915, while no domestic
lead was exported in 1913.

Lead ores are mined in twenty two
States and the deposits are sufficiently

large thai the United states occupies
tlie enviable position of having enough
had to meet all demands.

Zinc
The world's production of zinc is

slightly over 1,000,000 tons per year, of
which in 1915 the United state- pro
duced 489,519 short tons, as compared
with 353,049 tons in 1911. representing
an increase in domestic production of ::'.i
per cut. The value of the spelter pro

duel during 1915 was $121,401, I, as

i ompared with $36,01 1,000 in 1914, rep
resenting an increase of -j:;7 per cent.
'lie exports of domestic spelter for 1915
amounted to ll7,79t; ton-, as compared

with 04.S07 tons in 1914 and 7,7*3 tons
in L913. Illinois, Kansas and Oklahoma
are the principal States in which zinc
smelting is carried on. the amount
smelted in each State in 1915 being as
follows: Illinois, 159,958 tons; Kansas,
100,983 tons; Oklahoma, 109,208 tons;
with 118,930 tons apportioned among
the other states not enumerated. Many
of the smelter plants were increased in
size during the year, while a number of
new smelters were constructed. The
number of retorts in operation at the
heginning of 1915 was 113,914. while at
the end of the year they had heen in-
creased to 154,898.

The price of spelter in January, 1915,
at St. Louis was 5.5 cents per pound,
while in June. 1915, it had reached the
phenomenal price of 26.5 cents per
pound. The average price for prime
Western spelter at St. Louis was 14.2
cents per pound.

Ores of zinc are widely distributed in
commercial quantities in nineteen States.
Missouri is the largest producer, lead-
ing with about 4n per cent. Montana is
second, while large shipments originate
in Colorado. Wisconsin, New Jersey and
Tennessee. The supplies of ore are ample
for all domestic needs.

There arc large losses in the present
mining and metallurgical method- ; in
fact, in most cases not over 50 per cut
of the zinc in the ore is marketed a-
spelter, the remainder l.eing lost in the
various st.iues from mine t.. smelter.

A large percentage of tic zinc is used
for galvanizing iron and in the manu-
facture of brass. About 20,000 tons of
zinc oxide is used each year as tiller for
automobile tires, while 40,000 tons find
a market in the paint industry.

Aluminium

The production of bauxite, thi
material from which aluminium is made.
was 297,041 long tons in 1915, valued
.it $1,514,834, an increase of 35 per
cent in quantity and 11 per cent in value
compared with 1914. Arkansas pr..
dllced about 90 per cent of the doine-ti •

bauxite, while Georgia, Alabama and
Tennessee contributed the remainder.

The consumption of aluminium in the
United states In 1915 amounted to 99,-
806,000 pounds. The demand exceeded

THE MINERAL iniu'stry

183

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF IRON

WORLD'S COAL PRODUCTION

184

OCR cnrXTKV AXI> ITS RESOURCES

the supply, which, together with the
curtailment of imports, caused the price

to he much higher than in former years.
About sixty years ago aluminium was
considered a chemical curiosity, valued
at $90 per pound. The total amount
produced in 1883 was 83 pounds. In
1889 the total production in the United
States was 75 pounds per day. valued
at $4.50 per pound. In 1914 aluminium
was available in large quantities at 19
to 22 cents a pound, but with the in-
creased demand due to unsettled con-
ditions in 1915 the price rose from 19
cents in January to 57.75 cents per
pound in November.

The increase in the consumption of
metallic aluminium has largely beep due
to its lightness. The specific gravity oi
aluminium is 2.7, whereas brass is 3
times as great, steel 2.8 times and cop-
per 3.3 times. Aluminium also resists
the action of acids and is an important
metal in the manufacture of high ex-
plosives, sulphuric and nitric acids.

Aluminium las no substitute, but it
is available as a substitute for copper
:i~ :i conductor "t" electricity. The manu-
facture of aluminium is an expensive
process, inasmuch as it requires large
electrical installations. An abundance
of cheap water power is one of the pre-
requisites for the successful production
of this valuable metal. The deposits of
bauxite are far from being exhausted,
while all clays contain from 10 to 40 per
cent of aluminium oxide, which may be
recovered by methods yet to be dis-
covered.

('Jtrottiic Iron Ore
The production of chromic iron ore in
t!ie United States in 1915 amounted to
3,281 long tons, valued at $36,744, as
compared with 591 long tons, valued at
$8,715, in 11U4. The lomestic demand
for chromic iron ore Increased largely
as a result of conditions abroad, whereby
it was impossible to imporl this class of
on'. California is the largest producer,
while a small amount has been mined
near Grant's Pass, Ore.

The average production of chromic
iron ore from 1901 to 1913, Inclusive,
was only 250 tons, while the imports
during the same period averaged 39,000
tons per year, mainly from Rhodesia

and Turkey. The principal foreign <1e
posits are in Rhodesia. New Caledonia,
Russia and Turkey.

Chromium finds its principal use in
the manufacture of high grade tool steel.
Tool steel containing small amounts of
tungsten and chromium surpasses any
other known alloy as an efficient agent
in machine shop practice.

Miscellaneous Metallic Products

Antimony. — The production of anti-
mony ores in the Tinted States in 1915
was 5,000 tons, containing 2.000 tons
of antimony, valued at $325,000. The
price of antimony in 1915 was the high-
est known since the metal became a
regular article of commerce. The aver-
age monthly price for 19l4 was between
5.44 cents and 7.11 cents per pound.
The price of antimony rose rapidly in
1915 until it reached 40 cent-, per pound.

Bismuth. — Bismuth is saved as a by-
product in the electrolytic refining of
lead. The production in 1914 was 220,-
000 pounds, valued at $420,000. The
imports for 1914 were valued at $165,-
208. The price of bismuth in 1915
varied from $2.75 to $4 per pound.

Manganese. — Only a small amount of
manganese ore was mined in 1914 in
the United States, 2,635 long tons, val-
ued at $27, .".77. The average price at
the mine was $10.37 per ton. The im-
ports of manganese ore amounted to
2S3.294 tons, valued at $2.(^4.120. In
addition to the manganese ore there was
mined iron ore containing manganese to
the amount of 98.205 long tons, valued
at $2ls.l:i7

Nickel. — The amount of metallic nickel
and nickel salts recovered from smelting
plants in the United States in 1914 was
845,334 pounds, valued at $313,000.
Practically all of this was saves! as a
by-product in the electric refining of
copper. The imports of nickel amounted
to $5,028,818 in 1914. strictly speak-
ing, nickeliferous ores are not mined in

the United States.

Quicksilver. — The production of quick-
silver in 1915 was 20,681 ila-ks. a- com-
pared with 1C.54S tla-^ks in 1914. The
larger part of this production is from
California and Texas. The normal price
of quicksilver in 191 1 was $38 per flask.
The average price for 1915 was $8*i per
flask.

Radium. — The production of radium in
1915 was 6 grammes, as compared with
22.3 grammes in 1014. The United
state- has the largest known radium
deposits in the world, but the principal
market for radium is in Europe and on
account of tlie war the demand ceased
and hence the production was curtailed.
Radium occurs in minute quantities in
pitchblende and carnotite. Radium as
metal has been isolated bul lew time-.
It is ordinarily recovered a- a hydrous
sulphate, chloride or bromide. Its prin

Photographs from D. S. Geological Survey

Some California Wells Hafney's Gas Well in Winter

Some Beaumont, Texas, Wells Oil Derricks, Beaumont, Texas

OIL WELLS OF THE WEST

186

nrit COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

cipal use is in medicine as a remedy for
cancer.

Scrap Metals. — The amount of second-
ary metals recovered from scrap, sweep-
ings, etc. in 1915. was $114,304,930.

Tin. — Only a small amount of tin ore
(155 short tons in 1914i is produced in
the United States. The majority of this
production is from Alaska and contains
about 60 per cent metallic tin.

Titanium. — The production of titanium
ore i rutile and ilmenite) in the United
States for 1915 was 250 tons, valued at
$25,000 and $30,000. Rutile and ilmenite
are used in the manufacture of ferro-
t itanium, employed in making steel and
cast iron.

Tungsten. — The production of tung-
sten iii the United States in 1915 was
the largest on record, being about 2,165
short tons, containing 60 per cent of
tungsten trioxide, valued at slightly more
than $2,000,000. The production (lur-
ing the first six months of 1916 was in
excess of 3,000 tons. The price of tung-
sten ore the latter part of 1914 was $9
per unit. In the fall of 1915 the price
had advanced to $48 per unit. The price
of metallic tungsten rose from ,$1 a
pound early in the year to $8 a pound
in December. The principal sources of
production are California. Colorado and
Arizona. Its principal use is in the
manufacture of tungsten high speed tool
steels.

Uranium and Vanadium. — The carno-
tite ores produced -•"•.4 tons of uranium
oxide and 035 tons of vanadium oxide
in 1915, as compared with 87.2 tons of
uranium in 1914 and 435 tons of vana-
dium in 1914.

FUELS

Coal

The production of coal in the United
States in 1915 amounted to 531,619,487
short tons, an increase of 3.5 per cent
over the amount produced in 1914. Of
the total production 442,624,426 short
tons, valued at $502,037,688, was bitu-
minous coal and lignite, and 88,995,061
short tons, valued at $184,653,498, was
Pennsylvania anthracite. Pennsylvania
ranks lirst as a coal producing State,
followed by West Virginia, Illinois, Ohio
and Kentucky.

The total number of men employed In
the coal mining industry in 1915 was
734,008, employed on an average 209

days.

The United states ranks first in the
world's production of coal, followed by
Qreal Britain ranking second, with Ger

many third. Much of the mining in the

last fifty years has I n carelessly done

and enormous quantities of coal have

been left in the ground and in such
condition that it is doubtful whether
it may ever be recovered. During each
year for every 500,000.000 tons produced
there is wasted or left underground at
hast 250,000,000 tons, thus representing
an average recovery of only 66 per cent.
Under the best current practice with im-
proved mining methods many of the
mines are now recovering 85 to 90 per
cent. Of the total amount of energy
in coal not over 11 per cent is effectively
utilized.

The available coal supplies of the
United States are estimated as 4,231,-
352,000,000 short tons, and represent
about 51 per cent of the known deposits
of the world. Estimates have lieen made,
varying from 100 to 4,000 years, as to
when our coal supplies will become ex-
hausted, but it is safe to say that im-
proved mining methods and more efficient
utilization of the heat units in the coal
will do much toward extending the
period of depletion until some other
source of heat and energy will be found.

Coke. — About two thirds of our coke
is made by the bee hive process, which
wastes enormous quantities of gas. tar,
ammonia, benzol and other products.
The installation of by-product ovens has
increased rapidly and is turning into
profits and dividends large quantities
of the by-products wasted in the bee hive
process. The recovery of the coal by-
products places at the disposal of chem-
ists and manufacturers a quantity of
material from which dyes and explosives
may he manufactured.

The production of coke in the United
States in 1915 was 41,581,150 short

tons, an increase of 7,025,236 tons (20
per cent i as compared with 1914. The

number of I hive ovens in operation

in 1915 wa-. ts.Tr.r, and the number of
by-product ovens was 6,346. There were
a large number of by-product ovens
brought into use and all ovens were
operated nearer full capacity (303 days)
than in the previous year 1 2S6 days).
The number of men employed at coke
ovens in 1915 was 31,060.

Coke Oven By-products. — The value of

coke oven by-products was $29,824,579
in 1915, as compared with $17,500,000
in L914. The increase in benzol products

IRS

oil! curXTRV AND ITS RESOURCES

was the most Interesting feature of tin1
year in the coke industry. The valae
of this product rose from less than
$1,000,000 in 1914 to more than $7,760,-
000 in 1915. In 1914 there were four-
teen henzol plants, controlled by one
company. In 1915 sixteen additional
coke plants were equipped with benzol
apparatus. The benzol products, includ-
ing toluol, in 1915 amounted to 16,600,
657 gallons. The amount of toluol pro-
duced in 1915 was 623,506 gallons, val-
ued at $2.45 per gallon. The amount
of tar obtained from coke ovens in 1915
we.b 138,414,601 gallons, valued at
$3,568,384. The total value of annuo
oia obtained and sold was .$9,867,475.

Petroleum

The total quantity of crude petroleum
placed on the world's market in 1915
amounted to 426,892,673 barrels, or 7
per cent more than in 1914. making the
production in 1915 the greatest on rec-
ord. Of the total amount produced, the
United States leads with 281,104,104
barrels, or 65.85 per cent of the world's
production. Russia follows with in. or,
per cent, with Mexico third with 7.71
per cent.

Petroleum was first produced in this
country commercially in 1S59. The im-
ports of petroleum and petroleum prod-
for consumption in the United
states were practically negligible until
1911. The total value of crude petrol-
eum products and ozokerite imported
for consumption in the United state-
in 1914 was $12,300,000, Of which
17,200,000 barrels was crude petroleum
from Mexico, valued at $11,500,000, or
93 per cent of till imported petroleum
product-:. The total exports of crude
petroleum and liquid products of petrol
cum amounted in 1914 to 53,334,134
barrels, value, l at .S14t>.ono,000.

The growth of the petroleum Industry
in the United states has been rapid and
has resulted in the Invention of now
processes and devices whereby it 1ms

i n possible to increase the quantity

and reduce the price of many of the
petroleum bj products. The Bureau of

Mines has 1 n instrumental in the de

velopmenl of processes whereby the pro-
duction of gasoline from crude oil may

lie almost doubled, and the same bureau
is also devising methods for the preven-
tion of waste in drilling for petroleum
and its storage in tanks.

At the present rate of consumption of
250,000,000 barrels per year, the now
available supplies will be practically ex-
hausted within a quarter of a century.
However, the increasing prii f petrol-
eum, more efficient utilization and the
prevention of such large waste as is
dow noticeable will tend to prolong the
life of the fields many years beyond the
above estimate. Oil shale deposits in
Colorado and Utah furnish 10 to 00 gal
Ions per ton of rock and may become an
important source of petroleum as the
present supplies become depleted.

Natural Gas

The production of natural gas in 1914
was .about 592,000,000,000 cubic feet,

valued at more than $94,000,000. In

1885 the value of natural gas utilized
in the United states was $4,857,000.
Of all of the fuels produced in the
United states probably the greatest
waste and loss is in natural gas. As a
fuel it is easy to handle: is clean, and
where available is re), lacing all other
fuels. The waste in its use, however.
has been excessive, while the waste in
its production is even still greater. It
is estimated that in one State alone
more than 250,000,000 cubic feet of gas
is wasted daily, while in another field
at least 400.0011.(10(1 cubic feet of gas is
turned into the atmosphere each day.
investigations by the U. S. ecological
Survey and the Bureau of Mines are
being conducted for the conservation of
this valuable fuel both in its production
and in its method of use.

NON-METAIXIC PBOD1 I I 9

BaryU s

The production ,,f barytes in the
United States in 1915 was 108,547 short
tons, valued at $381,032, as compared
with 1914, when the production was
52.747 short tons, valued at SI .■,."..(',47.
The increased production in 1915 was
largely dm' to imports from Germany
being cut olT. The principal States pro-
ducing barytes follow in order of pro
duction: Missouri, Georgia, Tennessee

1!MI

on; <n| xi'Kv AND ITS RESOURCES

and Kentucky. The deposits in these
States are sufficient for domestic needs.
The mineral, however, is not as pure
as the imported product, so that the best
utilization •<( these deposits will result
from improved methods of bleaching and
purifying the raw material.

Cement
In 1880 there were produced in the
United States 85,000 barrels of Portia nd
cement, while in 1015 the production
was 86,891,681 barrels, valued at $74,-
756,674. The average price at the fac-
tory has decreased from $.", per barrel
in 1880 to 80 cents per barrel in 1915.
The wonderful development of the cement
industry in the United States dates from
the Introduction of the rotary kiln fired
with powdered coal in 1895. The United
States Imports comparatively little
hydraulic cement, amounting to less than
100,000 barrels a year. Twenty years
ago the imports of cement were more
than '■'•'■'< per cent of the domestic product,
whereas in recent years they are less than
0.1 per cent. There is little or no need
to import any ordinary cement, for all
parts of the country arc well supplied
with the raw material and are not de-
pendent upon any foreign source. The
annual exports of hydraulic cement
slightly exceed 4,000,000 barrels, or
nearly 5 per cent of the production.

Clay <nid Clay Products
Clay. The United states possesses
immense quantities of clay, which are
both suitable and available for the man-
ufacture of clay products. In 1014 the
production of raw clay (not Included in
the pottery or brick and tile business)
in the United States was valued at
$3,756,568. The closing of imports of
clay from Europe on account of the war
has resulted in an increased demand for
high grade fire clay to replace the im-
ported material. While many of the
American clays contain a small percent
age of iron, a process of eliminating the
excess iron has been devised and suc-
cessfully used in making some of the
undeveloped clays available for higher
uses. The great achievements of the
clay working industries in the last half
century are due to the use of American
ma.ie machines; the establishment of

ceramic schools ; the advertising cam-
paigns carried on by the manufacturers
of clay products, and the improvement
in the quality of wares.

Pottery Prod nets. — The value of the
pottery products produced in the United
States in 1915 was $37,289,456, as com-
pared with $35,398,161 in 1014, an in-
crease of 5 per cent. With the excep-
tion of white china, all of the pottery
products increased in value in 1915 as
compared with the previous year.

Ohio is the leading pottery State, its
principal product being white ware, the
output of which in 1915 was valued at
$10,184,834, or nearly two thirds of the
State's production, which was $15,894,-
507, or almost one half the total white
ware production of the United States.
New Jersey ranks second in the value
of pottery products, West Virginia third.
New York fourth, Indiana fifth and
Pennsylvania sixth.

The value of the imports of pottery
was $6,628,086, or $1,770,507 less than
in 1014. The decrease in the imports
was largely due to commercial condi
tions in Europe. The exports from do-
mestic' production amounted to $563,452
ami re-exports from foreign imports
$94,705.

Brick (t)id Tile — The brick and tile
industry forms about 78 per cent of the
clay products and in 1014 amounted to
$129,588,822, as compared with $143,
296,757 in 101.:. Ohio, as in the pot-
tery business, leads in this industry with
$21,815,392, followed by $20,100,495 for
Pennsylvania, other important States
in order of production are Illinois, New
Jersey, New York, Missouri and Cali-
fornia.

Fluorspar

The production of fluorspar In th.>
United States in 1915 w»s the largest on
record with a total of 136,941 short
tons, valued at $704,47."). In 1883 the
production was only 4.000 tons. In
1915 there were imported into the United
States 7.107 tons, valued at $22.s7s.
compared with 10,205 short tons, valued
at $38,943, in 1014. The principal im-
ports are from England. The Increased
production of fluorspar in 1915 was
taken care of by the great demand for
its ujse in the manufacture of steel.

192

mi i; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

The American deposits occur in Illi-
nois, Kentucky, New Mexico. Colorado.
New Hampshire ami Arizona, and are
ample to supply domestic requirements
in case of emergency. The American
product is of much higher grade than
the imported material. There is need
for an improvement in mining methods
and processes for its preparation for
market.

Gypsum

The amount of gypsum produced in
the United states in 1915 was 2,447,613
short tons, valued at $6,596,893. Prac-
tically one fourth of this production is
from New York, with Iowa. Michigan
and Ohio following next in order. The
gypsum beds in these States are large,
while many of the Western States con-
tain immense beds that have not been
worked. There were 77 active quarries
and 69 calcining plants in operation in
1915.

Phosphate Rock

The production of phosphate rock in
the Qnited states in 1915 amounted to
1,835,667 long tons, valued at $5,413,-
111. The 1915 production showed a de-
crease of 898,376 long tons as compared
with the production in 1014. The de-
creased production was the result of
conditions in Europe, whereby exports
were not as large as in previous years.
Shipments to Germany, which hitherto
las l a a large consumer, have prac-
tically ceased. As ,-i result mining oper-
ations were either curtailed or suspended
entirely. The principal States producing
phosphate rock are Florida, Tennessee
and South Carolina.

While tiie progress toward more effl-
cienl mining and milling methods has

I ecu greal ill recenl years, yet the waste

is much greater than it should he. The
phosphate deposits are large in the
South Atlantic States and in the far
West, especially Idaho. Utah, Wyoming

and Montana. They are in close pros

imity to - Iting centers where there

is an abundance Of raw material for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, which is
so essential in converting the insoluble
rock to a soluble salt. Phosphate rock
finds its principal use in the manufac-
ture of fertilizer and for this reason it

is of vital importance to everybody. It
has no mineral substitute, hence the de-
posits should he conserved by their
efficient utilization.

Potash

The production of potash salts in the
United states in 1915 was valued at
$342,000, which, while small, indicates
the possibility of establishing a domes-
tic potash industry. The imports of
refined potash salts in 1915 amounted
To 170,555,450 pounds, valued at $3,765,-
22 1. or slightly more than U."> per cent
of those in 1913. Taking all potash
salts together, the quantity imported in
1915 was about one tenth of that under

55.000 BARREL OIL TANK STRUCK BY
LIGHTNING AT TULSA, OKLA.

normal conditions, when the total im-
ports amount to about $15,000,000 annu-
ally. The import- of potash salts are
almost exclusively from Germany. Ex-
perimental work on potash salts from
different source* was active during the
year and Government bureaus are using
every effort to discover new sources of
these valuable salts and methods for
their production. The following possible
sources are being investigated: (a)

I. Photographing Length of Flame. 2. Ballistic Pendulnm of Explosive. 3. Gas and Dust

Gallery. 4. Explosion in Dust Explosion Gallery. 5. Long Combustion Chamber.

6. Calorimeter for Determining the Heating Quality of Coal

INTERESTING TESTS OF THE BUREAU OF MINES

V.H

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Saline residues ; (&) natural and arti-
ficial bitterns; (c) alunite and similar
minerals; (d) potash bearing feldspars;
I- i greensand marls, and (/) organic
sources, as seaweed, molasses residues,
etc.

Salt, Bromine <nt<1 Calcium Chloride

The amount of salt marketed in 1915
was 38,231,496 barrels, valued at $11,-
747,686, an increase in quantity of 9.8
per cent and in value 15.2 per cent as
compared with 1!H4. In 1915 the United
States produced 99.2 per cent of the
salt used, hence no need for Importing
this staple commodity.

Bromine Is produced in connection
with the manufacture of salt in Michi-
gan. Ohio and West Virginia. The total
amount produced in 1915 was 855,857
pounds, valued at $856,307. The high
price of bromine in 1915 was due in
part to the larger demand from abroad,
where it is reported to be used in making
asphyxiating gas.

Calcium chloride is one of the by-
products of the natural brines of the
Ohio Valley. A large amount of this
salt is being wasted at present and no
doubt new uses will lie found which will
stimulate its recovery.

Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid
Sulphur. The principal production of

sulphur in the United States is from
the sulphur wells of Louisiana and
Texas. The production of sulphur in
1914 was .•;i>T.i;::4 long tons, valued at
$5,954,236. The United states produces
sufficient sulphur for domestic consump-
tion and is now able to compete with
Italy, which ranks second. In 1909 the
exports of sulphur amounted to .".7.000
long tons, while in 1914 98,153 long
tons were export,.,], valued at $1,807,-
334. In 1914 26,135 tons were
imported.

The mining of sulphur in Louisiana is
hy the Frascn process, whereby super
heated water is forced into the sulphur
beds. The hot water melts the sulphur.

so that it Is pumped to the surface in
a molten condition.

Sulphuric Acid. The most important
chemical manufactured in the United
States is sulphuric acid, the raw ma
terial for which is abundant in the form

of native sulphur, pyrite and sulphur
fumes from metallurgical plants. The
production of sulphuric acid in the
United states in 1915 was 3,868,152
short tons, valued at $29,869,080. Sn]
phuric acid is an important item in the
fertilizer industry and in the manufac-
ture of explosives. Tiie manufacture of
sulphuric acid is now becoming one of
the important by-product processes in
connection with the metallurgy of cop-
per, whereby the sulphur fumes from
the sulphide ores may he roll,., -ted and
converted into acid. This is being done
on a la rue scale in Tennessee, and there
are a number of important copper
smelters in the West where thousands

Photo Underwood & Underwood

HYDRAULIC MINING

of tons of sulphur are wasted each day.
nil of which could be converted into sul-
phuric acid and become a source of
profit, instead of being a detriment to
growing vegetation, as is the case at
present.

I//.V , Uaneou8 Non-metallic Products

Arsenic.- White arsenic u recovered
as a by-product from sonic of the copper
smelters. The total production in 1!»14
was 4.o?o short tons, valued at $313,147.

Af>'be-8t08. The production of asbestos
in the United states in 1915 amounted
to l.T.:i short tons, valued at $76,952.
This represents an increase of .",'.1 per
cent in quantity and 306 per cent m
value as compared with l:»14. The
asbestos deposits in the United states
are not extensive and for this reason

practically all ,,r the asbestos used m
the country is imported, largely from
Canada, Arizona, Idaho, Georgia, Call-

THE MINERAL IMH STKY

195

fornia and Wyoming contain promising
deposits of asbestos.

Asphalt. — The production of natural
asphalt from mines and quarries in the
United States in 1915 amounted to 75,-
751 short tons, valued at $526,490. The
total production was about 5 per cent
less than in 1914. The quantity of
manufactured asphalt produced from
domestic petroleum in 1915 was 004,503
short tons, valued at $4,715,583, used
principally for road building, and 3S8,-
.">18 short tons from Mexican petroleum,
valued at $3,730,436.

'ieorgia, Massachusetts and Texas. Flor-
ida produced about 75 per cent.

Garnet. — Practically all of the garnet
in the United States is used for abrasive
purposes. The production in 1914 was
4,231 tons, valued at .$145,510.

0( ins and Precious stum*. — The pro-
duction of gems and precious stones in
the United States is insignificant as
compared with the imports. The total
production in 1914 was $124,651, as com-
pared with imports valued at $19,211,
084 in 1914 and $45,431,998 in 1913.

Graphite. — The 1915 production was

LABOR AND ACCIDENT STATISTICS FOR THE MINING INDUSTRY

[Compiled from reports of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines)

Number killed

Number injured

Total

Per 1,000
employed

Total

Per 1,000
employed

Number
employed

Metal Mines:

1911

695
661
683
" 559
553

47
33
38

16
23
30

188
213
183
180
148

2,656
2,419

2,785
2,454
2,269

46
45
38

4.19
3.91
3.57
3.54
3.64

2.29
1.19
1.21

1.07
1.52

1.62

1.69
1.88
1 .72
2 . 05
1.47

3.65
3.35
3.73

:i 2-2
3.09

1.89
2.02
1.22

26,577
30,734
32,971
30,216
35,295

4,247

.",.c,7:-i
5,718

1,977
1.434
2,095

5,390
0.562
7,7.S<t
7,836
9,671

*

*
*
*

2,514
2,189
2,852

160.12
181.65
172.37
191 .10
232 . 02

206 . 53
203.12
182.53

131.93
96.71

1 1 2 . S5

48.58
57.93
12 S3
89.11
96.30

103.27

98.10
91.82

165.979
169,199

1912

1913

1914

158,115

1915

Smelters:

1913

20,564
27,879
31,327

14.985
15,128
18,5(14

110,954
113,105
106,278
S7.936
100,740

728,348
722,662
747,644

7(13.185
734,008

24.345
22,313
31,060

1914

1915

Ore Dressing Plants:

1913

1914

1915

Quarries:

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

Coal Mines:

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

Coke Ovens:

1913

1914

1915

* Not available.

Bora.c. — The production of borax in
1914 amounted to 62,400 short tons,
valued at $1, 404. 400. The larger part
of the borax production was from south-
ern California.

Feldspar. — The amount of feldspar
produced in the United States in 1915
was 113.709 short tons, valued at $629,-
316, representing a reduction of about
16 per cent in the amount produced.

I tiller's- Earth. — The production of
fuller's earth in 1915 in the United
States was 47.901 tons, valued at $489,-
219. Six States reported production as
follows: Arkansas. California, Florida,

4.71 s short tons, valued at $429,631.

Lime. — The production of lime in the
United States in 1915 amounted to
3,589,679 short tons, valued at $14,336,-
750. an increase of 6.2 per cent in
quantity and 8 per cent in value over the
figures for 1914. The number of plants
in operation decreased from 954 in 1914
to 905 in 1917,.

Magnesite. — The majority of crude
magnesite comes from California. The
production in 1914 was 11,293 short
tons, valued at $124,22:',. The imports
i.r magnesia and magnesite amounted to
$1,453,508.

196

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Mint.- The value of the mica produced
In the Dnited States in 1915 was $428,-
769. The average price of sheet mica
was r,s cents a pound, as compared with
50 cents in P»14 and 21 cents in 1913.
North Carolina produced more than one
half of the total production, followed by
New Hampshire, Idaho and South Dakota.

Mineral Paints. — The production of
mineral paint in 1914, including had
and zinc pigments, amounted to 173,557
short tons, valued ;lt $10,451,746.

Sand and crurc!. — The production of
glass sand in P.»14 amounted to 1,619,-
649 short tons, valued at $1,568,030.
The production of sand and grave] foi
moulding, building and other purposes
was 77,662,086 short tons, valued at
$22,278,969.

Slate. The production of slate in l'.il.~>
in the Dnited states was valued at
$4,958,515, a decrease of 13 per cent
as compared with 1!>14. Pennsylvania
and Vermont produced more than 86 pel-
cent of the total roofing slate, the re-
mainder coming largely from Maryland,
Virginia and New York.

Exports of slate in 1915 were $46 137,
as compared with $139,125 in 1!H4. The
exports were the lowest since 1895. Tile
imports amounted to $2,768 in 1915, as
compared with $4,855 in 1914.

Talc and Soapstone. -The amount of
talc and soapstone produced in 1915
wa- 1st;, 891 tons, valued at $1,891,582

QUABBY INDUSTRY

The value of the quarry products
in the Dnited states. Including
granite, basalt, trap rock, limestone,
sandstone and marble used for build-
ing, monumental, paving and other
purposes, amounted t<» $77,412,292 in
1(.)14. The granite production was
valued at $20,028,019, 30 per cent of
which was used in building, 23 per
cent in monumental work. 14 per
cent in paving and 19 per cent as
crushed nn-k. The limestone indus-
try is the largest, amounting to $33,
894,155, of which 10 per cent is used
in building and nearly 60 per cent as
crushed stones, the remainder being
used for paving, curbing, Bagging
and riprap. The marble industry is
the third in size, amounting to $8,-
121.412. of which sixty per cent is
used in building and thirty per cent
for monumental purposes. Sand-
stone amounted to $7,501,808, while
basalt and traprock amounted t<>
$7,865,998.

ELECTRICALLY-OPERATED GANTRY CRANE SERVING BLOCK PILE

THE MINERAL INDUSTRY

lit?

WORLDS PRODUCTION OF COPPER, TIN & LEAD

WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF DIAMONDS AND PRECIOUS STONES

198

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

1. ,..,,...^ f|u..„

Km a i <■

(/S.. — .j«- |«*».»( • <» i«y*J

Copyright Muuu & Co.

THE GREATEST INVENTOR OE THE AGE

CHAPTEE XVI.

THE PATENT OFFICE AND INVENTION
SINCE 1845

HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS KEPT PACE WITH THE

INVENTOR

By WILLIAM T. WYMAN

IN 1845, the birth year of the
Scientific American-, the present
patent system was nine years old.
In 1S36 the Patent Office was placed
on a distinct basis, the system re-
organized and the examination or
American method of searching pat-
ents inaugurated.

THOMAS JEFFERSON WAS THE FIRST
COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS

The American patent system was
founded under the act of IT'.M). Un-
der this act the Secretary of State,
the Secretary of War and the At-
torney General constituted a board
to consider all applications for pat-
ents. Thomas Jefferson, the tirst
Secretary of State, was in effect the
first Commissioner of Patents and
the first Examiner. It is said that
he personally examined into and de-
termined the patentability of every
application tiled during his first
years in office as head of the State
Department The grant of a patent
then was not only a procedure of
exceeding dignity, being signed by
the President, the Secretary of State
aud the Attorney General, but was
issued with some reluctance. Only
three patents were permitted to see
the light of day in 1700.

From this modest beginning, the
business of the patent system grew

slowly, but steadily. From 1790 to
1802 it required but one State De-
partment clerk to perform all the
clerical work pertaining to the Pat-
ent < Mlice. the ent ire records of winch
were contained in a dozen pigeon-
holes. 1'p to 1S36, about 111,(100 pat-

INCREASE OF POPUL\TION. TOTAL WEALTH,|

VALUE OF PRODUCTS AND ANNUAL ISSUE

OF PATENTS FROM 1S50 TO 1910.

ents were granted. In that year,
the Patent Office became an indepen-
dent bureau, headed by a commis-
sioner, assisted by one examiner and
six other subordinate clerks and em-
ployees. While the reorganization
gave the Office a dignity and stand-
ing it did not have before, still the
force provided to cope with the
pressing demands of inventors does
not now appear to be excessively

Copyright by Muni] .v Co., in.

200

nil; COUNTRY A.Mi ITS RESOURCES

large. And yet critics, whose sense
of economy was more acute than
were their sifts df imagination, de-
cried the sheer waste entailed by an
organization so extravagant in men.
But applications came pouring in.
and in the following year the ex-

The United States of America.

..,,.. ,!,.!,. l men l'..itni (hall come

AN EARLY PATENT

One of the first patents signed by President

Washington in possession of Munn & Co.

amining corps had to be doubled )>y
the appointment of an additional ex-
aminer, and in 1839 the position of
two assistant examiners was cre-
ated to keep pace with the growing
business.

The act of 1793 was the only one

which provided for the grant of a

patent without examination. In
1836 the modern examination sys-
tem was instituted, by which a
search through patents and publica-
tions was made to determine the
question of novelty. This act also
for the lirst time made a positive
requirement for the inclusion of a
claim in the specification in the fol-
lowing terms :

"He [the inventor] shall positively
specify and point out the part, improve-
ment or combination which lie claims
as his own invention or discovery."

THE EAKLY DAYS OF THE PRESENT
PATENT OFFICE

In 1836 the erection of the Patent
Office was begun; the building was
finished in 1840. This original struc-
ture forms the F Street wing of the
present building. In ls4."> the pat-
ent system was well on its way and
the Office properly housed, with an
official force of one commissioner,
two examiners, and two assistant ex-
aminers. In that year, 1.2 Hi new
applications were tiled, besides many
caveats, and the work was becoming
too heavy for this limited force to
handle effectively. This condition
became and continues to bo chronic.

Even as early as 1850, only five
years after the founding of the
'■Scientific American" and but four-
teen years after the reorganization
of the Patent Office. American inven-
tions were numbered among the
most notable produced. In isr,7,
this country issued over one-third
more patents than Great Britain,
which at that time had a substantial
ly greater population. In that year.

Est i

202

01 i; COl Vi'KY A.\n its RESOURCES

■41950 FATfffrS

3S6ro SArrrtrs
M?9Z FArs/rrs

!3273 fArenri

?aa57 PArrnrs
i3?'i rArrnrs

HOW THE NUMBER OF PATENTS HAS INCREASED YEAR BY YEAR

the United Slates with a populatiOB
of 23,000,000 issued 2,910 patents,
Prussia with almost 17,000,000 is-
sued 48, while Russia, with 70.-
000,000 population, issued 24 patents.
Commissioner Holt, in his annual
report for that year, in reviewing
the statistics, grows eloquent and
philosophizes thus:

"As the light <if liberty waxes dim-
mer, ■-" does tin' Inventive genius Bag
;inil dull apace, until finally, amid the
darkness of the political night which

br Is over Eastern hinds, it is utterly

extinguished."

I II I \ S II BE! II M I'l MOD or \MERT-
t \\ INVENTION

During this decade, the one im-
mediately preceding Hie <'ivil war,
the stimulating Influence of inven-
tion upon industry became notice-
ably apparent. Southern New Eng-
land was tending to become a gigan-
tic workshop ami the character of
.■mire sections of New York and
Pennsj Ivania ami < >hio radically
changed from agricultural to indus-
trial communities. The invention of
i he sewing machine the greatest
labor-saving device of the ages- <was
of itself a tremendous stimulus, ami
the opening up of the Wesl througb

the rail Ida 1 1 meant activity in iron

i roductioD ami the basic engineering

industries. The reaper and the
thresher made the opening up of the
West profitable and the inventions

in Grearms, machine tools, locks and

ELIAS HOWE, JR.

inventor of Hie Sewing Machine

Born .inly 9, 1819

Died o, tobi r I. !>•;:

THE PATENT OFFICE

.'i 13

MONUMENT TO THE THREE HOWES AT
SPENCER, MASS.

labor-saving devices and textile ma-
chinery initiated now industries and
accelerated the growth of the coun-
try by leaps and bounds. By the
time the Civil war broke upon the
country, only a quarter of a century
after the inauguration of the pres-
ent patent system, and in spite of
the pre-eminently agricultural char-
acter of her pursuits, this country
gave every evidence that she was to
be among the first of the industrial
nations,

AFTER THE CIVIL WAP.

The distracting period of the Civil
war over, activity in enterprise in-
creased energetically, and in the
year after the Civil war closed there
were filed in the office over three
times as many applications as were
filed in 1861. During the war. the
Bessemer process was developing,
and the influence of this most stimu-
lating of inventions, which inaugur-
ated the age of steel and our present

intensive industrial era, became felt
not long after its close. Then began
a period of true national expansion
— the further developing of the
West, with strenuous enterprise in
reaching out with new railroads,
building of steel mills and locomo-
tive works — marking an inflation of
energy, industry and finance, which
culminated in the severe panic of
1S73. The country paused for a
little while and took account of
stock at the great Centennial Ex-
position in 3N7<5. The wonders of
our material advance, practically all
of which were induced by invention,
such as the Corliss engine, the tex-
tile machines, woodworking tools,
machine tools, the sewing machine,
hydraulic machinery and various
kinds of automatic appliances, were
there spread out for inspection to
demonstrate the ingenuity of the
American inventor and the intimate
relation existing between him and
what was making American devel-
opment.

A. B. WILSON
Sewing Machine Inventor

204

(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

The period from 1865 to ivs|» gave
inkling of the dawn of a radically
new era. The electrical age was
prognosticated in the dynamos of
Gramme, Siemens and Brush, the
Bell telephone and the arc lamp.
Bui they left no impression upon in-
dustry or flie social life of the time

THE MOST FERTILE
FIELDS OF IN

VKVJI.'N.

Patents.
Carriages and Wagons.
Clasps, Buckles, Bullous 18,772
Harvesters

■ ;

Mills

Machine Elements.. . .
Builders' Hardware. .

I '!■■■ s 12,164

Locks and Latches 11,930

Mills, Grinding, etc.... 18,803

Railways 11,347

Railway I . - 15,462

Seeders and Planters 11,059

W a It r Distribution—

Mains and Pipes, I

and Fa ucets, 1

Couplings, etc 21,592

\V 1 Working 10,060

Washing M

Other Laundrj

ances 1 1,385

Steam Engines 11,907

S( IME "I l HI MOST PRO-
LIFIC r-\ ENTORS.

I

Elihn Thomson 617

Francis H
Edward H

.•jusc 340

DIAGRAM SHOWING RATIO OF IN-
CREASE OF DNITED STATES
PATENTS FOR FIVE YEARS

until the nexf period got into swing;
From 1867 to ls7'.'. the annual cum-
ber of applications filed remained
stationary and averaged around
20,000 per year, but aboul the time
specie payments were resumed, the
country appeared to take mi a new
lease of life. In 1m',7, 21,276 appli-
cations were filed, and in ls7'.». 20,-
059; in the next year (1880) the
number increased to 23,012, and in
18S9 reached 10,575, more than dou-
ble the number filed ten years before.
In that decade the country literally
jumped forward and inventive in-
genuity reached the golden age of
its activity.

THE ADVENT OF THE HIKED INVENTOR

The larger concerns have in con-
nection with their patent depart-
ments or in association with them
research laboratories with a corps of
highly trained engineers and tech-
nical and scientific assistants. Ev-
ery improvement of a patentable na-
ture, if of proved utility or possible
merit, becomes the subject matter of
an application, not only for the mon-
opoly that a patent may bring, but
also as a protection in its manufac-
ture and as a matter of record. The
patent department advises the tech-
nicians whether a proposed device
may lie patented or whether it in-
fringes an existing patent, and also
appraises the validity and value of
patents offered to the company for
sale. The experimental department
will try out new ideas or develop
them to some conclusion. Many of
the big things now come through
these organizations, for frequently
in the evolution of an art. an instru-
mentality may he so complex, re-
quire the expenditure of so much
skill and money to develop and dem-
onstrate, that only a company with
large resources is able to handle the
proposition. Thus, the General Elec-
tric Company took several years,
plus an expenditure of a few mil-
lion dollars, to develop the Curtis
turbine. It is by no means uncom-
mon for a promoter to spend over
spin, (ion to develop a process or ap-

THE PATENT OFFICE

21 15

JOHN ERICSSON
Inventor of the "Monitor"

paratUS so it will be marketable.
Edison, who. if not incorporated, is
a host in himself, frequently spent
thousands upon thousands in inves-
tigations and has made experiments
by the hundreds before he was in
a position to announce results. There
are some devices which are so in-
tricate in design, notably type set-
ting and casting machines, that any-
where from a quarter to one million
dollars may be expended in construc-
tion and improvement, in trials and
changes, only to prove eventually,
what could not possibly be deter-
mined in advance, that it could not
meet the various requirements de-
manded in commercial practice.
Mark Twain sank his personal for-
tune of several hundred thousands
in a typesetting device, probably the
most intricate bit of mechanism
ever devised, because, while the ma-
chine did everything it was designed
to do. it was too intricate to be
understood by the ordinary me-
chanic.

Then again, the device may lie

simple enough, its merits sufficiently
obvious, but it may require more

business acumen, push and advertis-
ing to introduce it than would be re-
quired to market an article of staple
and competitive character, or some-
times no character at all. A well-
known instance of this inertia on
the part of the public is the case of
a certain safety razor, which re-
quired prodigious efforts on the part
of its promoters to eventually get
the public to use what appeared to
be a self-evident filling of a long-
felt want. Xo inventor can afford
to create without the protection of
the patent laws, because the labor
and expense he is placed under pre-
liminary to establishing the utility
of his invention becomes a fixed
charge and the very means to handi-
cap him against a piratical competi-
tor, who can start without such a
burden.

THE INFINITE POSSIBILITIES THAT LIE
IX INVENTION

In 1844, Commissioner Ellsworth,
contemplating the 13,500 patents

CAPTAIN JAMES B. EADS

206

on: coi -.ntuv ami its RESOURCES

granted up to thai year, over 500
of which were issued in the year
ls-4.'!, and apprehending a cessation
of all endeavors in the Qeld of in-
vention, uttered this prediction in
his official report : "The advance-
ment of the arts, from year to year,
taxes our credulity and seems to
presage the arrival of that period
when human improvement must
end." The commissioner could well
marvel at the astounding advances
made in labor-saving devices during
his own lifetime, but what would
have been his mental state could he
have been endowed with prophetic
vision and have foreseen hut a frac-
tion of the inventive activity which
has taken place in a man's lifetime
from the date of his utterance? The
number of patents now is over a
million, the annual issue is more
than three times the number of all
the patents -ranted up to his day.
and the examining corps has in-
creased from four to almost four
hundred without being able to keep
pace with the ever growing tide of

R. J. GATLING
Inventor of tlie Qatling Gun

$300,000 FOR A PATENT

THE AUTOGRAPHIC KODAK

THE DEVICE

THE PRODUCT THE [NVENTOB

THE MATERIAL REWARD

new work. 11 is estimated that the
value of American manufactures at-
tributable directly or indirectly to
patentable inventions amounts to
the enormous total of more than
twenty Pillion dollars, which is
about four times the value of nil
taxable property in the United
states at the time Commissioner
Ellsworth made his report.

It has been said that the single
invention of producing steel by the
Bessemer process doubled, directly
or through its influence, the world's
wealth in the third of a century af-
ter its inl reduction.

More astounding arc* the figures
relating to the electrical Industries,
including telephony, central station
lighting and power, and electric rail-
ways, the latest figures available
showing an investment in the United
States alone of seven billion dol-
lars, annual u'ros^ revenue or sales

THE PATENT OFFICE

21 17

DAGUERRE
From an original Daguerreotype

of over a billion, in which three
quarters of a million men were en-
gaged, Mt an annual pay-roll of over
three hundred and fifty million dol-
lars. These industries were either
non-existent in 1880 or in their in-
cipient stage at that time. Their
origins and every advance therein
were directly founded on inventions,
every one of which is patented and
of record in the Patent Office.

THE TREND OF INVENTION

The activity of the different
classes in the Patent Office from
time to time reflects accurately the
changes which constantly pass in the
world of industry and the applied
arts. The basic pursuit in this coun-
try always being the tilling of the
soil, patents for agricultural imple-
ments have occupied a prominent po-
sition, both in numbers and import-
ance throughout its history. The
invention of the sewing machine in-
itiated a period of great activity in
a new art, while the telephone let

loose a flood of inventions for adap-
tations and improvements. The new
electro-chemical industry came into
being about the middle of the eight-
ies and patent activity with rela-
tion thereto was high at the same
time, The incandescent lamp start
ed the electric age, in whose vortex
we still are, and patent concern in
all things electrical is still inten-
sive. The rise and fall of the bicy-
cle, the wave of interest in auto-
matic car couplings, the first surg-
ings of activity in aeroplane inven-
tion, and the deep concern of the
great ingenious to solve the urgent
non-refillable bottle problem — all
these movements have been reflected
in the filing of applications in the
Patent Office. In recent years the
automobile is establishing records,
the arts relating to internal com-
bustion motors, carbureters, gear-
ings, self-starters, accessories, alloy
steels and heat treatment of steels
being specially active.

The United States has by far the
proudest record in the field of in-
vention; whether reckoning by the
number of pioneer products, their
ingenuity, or their far-reaching ef-

GE0RGE WESTINGHOUSE
Inventor of tlie Air T-rak' . !■

208

OUR COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

Photo by Hoppe

SIR HIRAM MAXIM

fects in the greatest diversity of
fields, she easily stands in first
place. Particularly in labor-saving
devices does she stand foremost. No
one in all history has worked so
hard to save labor as the Yankee.
The greatest of all labor-saving de-
vices, the sewing machine, is his,
and outside of textile machinery,
practically all the great advances in
this department have been of his
invention, as witness the cotton gin,
the reaper, shoe machinery, type-
writer and typesetting machines.

Ill the held of electricity the Amer-
ican shares pre-eminence with Eu-
ropeans, and yet the three most sig-
nal advances in electrical applica-
tion are to his credit — the telegraph,
telephone, and the incandescent
lamp. Since 1880 (the typewriter
was Invented a few years previous-
ly i no revolutionary mechanical in-
ventions comparable to those which
signaled American Ingenuity previ-
ously, was devised except the type-
setting machine, hut in the held of
electricity I incandescent lamp, trol-

ley car, electric welding), optics
(kinetoscope, transparent film) and
air navigation (an absolutely new

art) he did not remain inactive.

SOME PROLIFIC INVENTORS

Between 1^7^ and 1900, Thomas
Edison had received 742 patents; F.
H. Richards, 619; Elihu Thomson,
444; Charles E. Scribner. :;74; L.
C. Crowell, -!'.>.'!: Edward Weston,
2S0; R. M. Hunter, 276; Charles J.
Van Depoele, 24.") ; and (Jcor^e West-
inghouse, 239, Up to 1910 Edison
secured 003 patents, of which 71.3
were electrical. Considering all the
patents that are probably pending
or in course of preparation, it is
estimated that the number of his
inventions is greater than 2,000. it
is safe to assert that he is the most
proline inventor of all time.

Although Great Britain has more
pioneer inventions to her credit in-
volving fundamental operations that
underlie all industry, than any other
country, the only innovations of pio-
neer character she has contributed

rright, Harris & i;« lug

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

THE PATENT OFFICE

200

in the lasl one half century arc the
basic process for making steel, the
steam turbine, and the cyanide pro-
cess. But the steam engine, the
greatest invention of all ages, is
hers, and so is the Bessemer process,

DR. DIESEL
Inventor of the Diesel Engine

which inaugurated our present in-
tensive industrial era.

Germany before 1871 was an al-
most negligible factor in the field
of applied science, although she had
previously to that date given ample
evidence of her vigor in pure science.
The adoption of a patent system

based upon that of the United States
was an extreme stimulus to inven-
tion, and the impetus given to inven-
tiveness is shown by the large num-
ber of very important contributions
she has devised in the last 35 years.
and the increasing number of patents
she has taken out in this country
in recent years, now exceeding those
applied for by any other foreign na-
tion. To her sons is due the gas
engine, the gasoline motor; the crude
oil engine (Diesel motor) ; the auto-
mobile; the Welsbach lamp: the
tungsten lamp; the X-ray machine;
the utilization of blast furnace
gases for operation of gas engines;
the superheating of steam in loco-
motive practice ; the synthesis of in-
digo; the contact method of making
sulphuric acid; the Goldschmidt
thermit process, and the innumer-
able and radical innovations in dye
making, drugs, and chemicals.

An interesting confirmation of the
changing character of our population
may be made by comparing the
names of inventors prominent in the
earlier periods of the country's his-
tory with those which are found
frequently scattered through the
later additions of the Official Ga-
zette. Fulton, Whittemore, Bigelow,
Blanchard, Hoe, Campbell. Ames.
Fairbanks, Howe, Colt, McCormick,
etc., testify to the complete Anglo-
Saxon predominance of former
times, while such names as Betten-
dorf, Mergenthaler, Pupin, Tesla,
Christensen, Doherty, Frasch, Gal-
lagher, Conner, Monnot, Krakau,
#Mesta, Steinmetz, Sauveur, and Lin-
denthal, which are abundantly
sprinkled among the names listed in
recent Official Gazettes, offer proof
of the leavening that is going on in
all departments of American life.

CHAPTER XVII.
MANUFACTURES

THE extent of manufacturing
operations in the United
States is perhaps best under-
stood by considering that during the
year 1914 there were 8,265,426 per-
sons engaged in manufacturing or
29.4 per cent of all workers engaged
in gainful occupations. < »f this num-
ber, 264,872 were proprietors and
firm members, 964,217 were salaried
employees and 7,036,337 were wage
earners. With the exception of the
agricultural industry, the manufac-
turing establishments of the United
States employ more men than any
other industry.

With respect to the value of the
products produced, manufactures
rank rirst. the total value of the
products turned out during the year
1914 being $24,246,323,000. This
amount represents the selling value
or prices at the plants of the prod-
ucts turned out and does not neces-
sarily have any relation to the
amount of sales for the year. The
cost of materials used was $14,-
368,089,000, leaving $9,878,234,000
as the value added by manufacture1.

The salaries and wages paid out
for the year amounted to $5,367,-
249.000, of which amount. $1,287,-
917.000 was paid to the 904.217 sal-
aried employees and $4,079,332,000
to the 7,036,337 wage earners.

It is impossible in the short space
allotted to this subject to more than
indicate, in a general way, the ex-
tent of manufacturing operations in
the United States. For convenience
the industries are treated under the
following headings: Manufactured
Food Products, Textiles, Iron and

Steel Manufactures, Transportation,
the Electrical industry, the Leather
Industry, Paper and Printing and
Publishing, Chemicals and Allied
Products and Miscellaneous Indus-
tries. Detailed information relative
to particular industries may be had
by addressing the Bureau of the
Census, Department of Commerce,
Washington, I >. C. Unless otherwise
stated the statistics given are for the
census of manufactures for 1914.

INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS

Tabulating inventory of manufacturing

plants

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

£12

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

MANUFACTURED FOOD PRODUCTS

SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT PACKING

There were slaughtered for food in
wholesale establishments during the
year 1!»14. 7,149,042 beeves, 2,019,004
calves, 15,951,860 sheep and lambs and
goats and kids and .'54.441,913 hogs.
The total products were valued at $1,-
651,765,424. The fresh meat aggregated
6,656,031,002 pounds, valued at $769,-
383,846, comprising: 3,658,333,660
pounds of beef, valued at $421,296,794 :
194,698,880 pounds of veal, valued at
$26,299,446; 629,232,690 pounds of mut-
ton and lamb, including some goat meat.
valued at $74,675,627; 1,877,099,071
pounds of pork, valued at $226,535,734;
and 296,666,701 pounds of edible offal,
dnsscd poultry, goat meat, and game,
valued at .S20.rv7G.245. Cured meat.
consisting of dry salt, pickled and
smoked beef and pork, exclusive of
canned meat, sausage and meat pud-
dings, aggregated 3,020,881,494 pounds,
valued at $408,000,916, and comprised
91,571,573 pounds of beef, valued at
$14,395,316, and 2.029,309.741 pounds
of pork, valued at $393,605,600. Canned
goods, consisting of beef, pork, meat
products, and other canned goods, ex-
elusive of sausage, represented 160,-
798,955 pounds, valued at $20,417,024.
The output of sausage was 509,151,311
pounds, valued at $68,195,522, including
74,004,380 pounds of canned sausage,
valued at $9,845,669, and also some
sausage in paper cartons for which fig-
ures are not available. These figures,
however, do not include the output of
establishments engaged primarily in the
manufacture of sausage, (if lard — com-
prising prime steam, pure leaf kettle
rendered, leaf, refined and neutral —
1,119.188,675 pounds, valued at $120,-
414,007, was rendered. The production
of compound lard and lard substitutes
was 396,397,950 pounds, valued at $33,-
037,467 : of oil — comprising oleo, lard.
oeat's foot, and cooking oil— 23,217,082
gallons, valued at $15,935,434; of raw
and rendered tallow and oleo stock,
209,614.135 pounds, valued at $13,732,-
750; of oleo and lard stearin. 30,091,-
991 pounds, valued at $2,752,42] : and
of oleomargarine. G0.3N7.NS1 pounds,
valued at $8,818,557.

CANNING AND PRESERVING

There were 538 establishments en-
gaged in canning and preserving lish
and oysters in the United States during
the year 1914. the products of which
were valued at $55,283,404. The total

val f fish and oysters canned was

$41,321,593, of which amount clams were
valm, | al $670,363; oysters, $2,676,951;
salmon. $27,633,284 :' sardines. $6,238,
933; shrimp. $1,725,621; tuna. $1,638,-
075 : and other fish, $737,766. The pro
diui inn of smoked <>r dried fish was
28,713.806 pounds, valued al $2,759,341
and was made up as follows: Finnan

haddie, 4,095,693 pounds, valued at
$327,877 : halibut. 509,288 pounds, valued
at $62,546; herring, 11,504,126 pounds
valued at $719,640; salmon. 4,248,896

pounds, valued at $638,975 : sturgeon,
511,190 pounds, valued at $150,614; all
other smoked or dried tish. 7,844 607
pounds, valued at $859,689. The out-
put of salt or pickled fish was 156,153,-
589 pounds, valued at $9,200,162 as
follows: Cod. 83,502,295 pounds, val-
ued at $5,561,770; haddock. 4,947,286
pounds, valued at $218,359: herring.
22,150.974 pounds, valued al $668,838;
mackerel. 6,224,313 pounds, valued at
$519,727 : all other salted or pickled
fish. 39,328.721 pounds, valued at $2,-
231.468.

There were 3.199 establishments en-
gaged in the canning and drying of
fruits and vegetables, the products of
which were valued at $158,015,893. The
value of canned and dried fruits and
vegetables packed during the year was
as follows: Canned vegetables. $84,
413.007; canned fruits. $24,897,174 ;
dried fruits. $34,771,912: canned soups,
$7,877.057 : other products were valued
at $6,056,083.

FLOUR AND GRIST MILL PRODUCTS

The products of the 10,787 establish-
ments, which did merchant grinding
during the year 1914. were valued at
$875,496,013.

The consumption of wheat by [lour
mills and grist mills was 543,970,038
bushels; rye, 12,748,135 bushels: corn,
180,115,704 bushels: buckwheat. 5.
478.045 bushels: barley. 20,288,396
bushels; oats. 50,227.050 bushels; other
grain, 4,277,864 bushels; alfalfa. 87,884
tons; and other material. 121,965 tons.

The output for the year 1914 was as
follows: Wheat flour, 116,045,090 bar-
rids, valued at $542,051,752; rye Hour
and rye Graham, 1,926,795 barrels, val-
ued at $7,801,413; buckwheat flour,
125,622,189 pounds, valued at $3,754,-
857; barley meal. 14,000,789 pounds,
valued al $212,343; porn meal and corn
flour. 16,327,993 barrels, valued at $54,-
903.301 ; hominy and grits. 870.364,453
pounds, valued at $13,767,561 : oatmeal.
30, 451. 581 pounds, valued at $757,804;
bran and middlings, 4,648.930 tons, val-
ued at $104,350,655; f 1 and offal,

4,753,280 tons, valued at $137,067,959;
com oil, 301,949 gallons, valued at
$152,208; breakfast foods, rolled oats,
etc., 92,676,085 pounds, valued at $2,-
932,238; all other cereal products were
valued at $2,091,922 and all other prod-
ucts at $5.502.ihio.

kick. CLEANING AND POLISHING

The total quantity of rough rice milled
during the year 1914 was 1,036,587,825
pounds, or 23,035,285 bushels (of 45
pounds). Of this quantity 1,025,628,075

pounds was of domestic production, and
10,959,750 pounds of foreign.

MANUFACTURES

213

The amount «>f clean rice obtained
was 674,872,108 pounds, valued ;it $21,-
655,105. Tliis was 65.1 per cent, by
weight, of the rough rice milled. There
were 31,053,118 pounds of polish, valued
at $352,271. produced from rice during
the year : 99,403,200 pounds of bran,
valued at .$772,275 ; all other products
were valued at $259,043. Thus the total
value of all products derived from the
cleansing and polishing of rice for the
year 1914 amounted to $23,039,294.

BUTTER, CHEESE AND CONDENSED MILK

During the year 1914 there were
7.9S2 establishments engaged in the but-
ter, cheese and condensed milk indus-

trv, whose products were valued at
$370,818,729. The quantity of milk con
sinned by these factories was 8,431,632,
800 pounds, costing $114. .114, 929. The
quantity of cream consumed was 2,383,
828,265 pounds, costing $160,916,828.

The products, valued at $370,818,729,
were divided as follows: 786,013,489
pounds of butter, valued at $223,179.
254; 377,500.199 pounds of cheese, val
ued at $50,931,925; 8S4.040.701 pounds
of condensed and evaporated milk, val-
ued at $59,374,948; 21,987,911 pounds
of powdered milk, valued at $2,081,607;
4.051.320 pounds of sugar, valued at
$400,613 ; and other products valued at
$34,850,382.

TEXTILES

CORDACE AND TWINE AND JUTE AND LINEN-
GOODS

The total value of the cordage and
twine and jute and linen goods produced
during the year 1914 amounted to $83,-
228.424. There were produced during
the year. 487.443,350 pounds of rope and
binder twine, valued at $43,085.517 ;
13,244.198 pounds of cotton rope, valued
at $2,539.900 ; 105.249,077 pounds of
twine, other than binder, valued at
$13,990,522 ; 75.875.322 pounds of yarn,
valued at $8,320.180 ; 5.707.008 pounds
of linen thread, valued at $3,409,136;
131. 827, OSS square yards of bags and
bagging, valued at $0,440,594 ; 3,326.302
square yards of jute carpets and rugs,
valued at $810,845; and other products
valued at $4,019,718.

FELT GOODS

The cost of all material required in
the production of felt goods during the
year 1914 was $0.S24.537. The total
value of the products manufactured in
the establishments engaged in this in-
dustry was $13,092,705. There were
produced in that year, 3.941,795 pounds
of endless felt belts, valued at $4,104.-
180 ; 3,028.286 pounds of boot and shoe
linings, valued at $1,512,783; 7.431.152
square yards of trimming and lining
felts, valued at $1,048,583; 2.291.002
pounds of saddle felts, valued at $973,-
353. The remaining products, including
table and piano covers, felt cloth, etc.,
were valued at $5,993.SG0.

HATS, FUR-FELT AND WOOL-FELT

The output of finished fur-felt hats
in 1914 was 2.118.034 dozen, valued at
$33,603,531. The total value of the
products of the fur-felt industry was
$37,349,744.

The total value of the products of
the wool-felt hat industrv in 1914 was
$1,944,484. of which amount. $1,777,225
represented the value of the 381,044
dozen wool felt hats produced.

HOSIERY AND KNIT GOODS

During the year 1914 there were 1,-
647 establishments engaged in the man-

ufacture of hosiery and knit goods, the
products of which were valued at $263,-
925,855. There were 75.227,704 dozen
pairs of hosierv produced, valued
at $9S,130,205; 21, 758,775 dozen shirts
and drawers, valued at $57,523,051 ;
6.283.360 dozen combination suits,
valued at $35,030,404 ; 2.249.142 dozen
sweaters, valued at $26,195,002 ; 2.470,-
183 dozen pairs of gloves and mittens.
valued at $10,519,013; 987.178 dozen
hoods, scarfs, etc., valued at $3,450,320 :
274,544 dozen bathing suits, valued at
$2,033,889; 03.204 dozen shawls, valued
at $713,545. and 74.901 dozen pairs of
leggings valued at $313,952.

In the production of hosiery and knit
goods there were 3,070 sets of cards
used; 852.250 spindles; 65.328 sewing
machines and 142,240 knitting machines
of all classes.

COTTON GOODS

The quantity of raw cotton consumed
in the 1,324 establishments engaged in
the manufacture of cotton goods, dur-
ing the year 1914, was 2,523.500,837
pounds, costing $330,315,223. The other
materials consumed were classified as
follows: Cotton waste, 54,116,105
pounds, costing $3,542,631 ; cotton
yarns. 139.482,027 pounds, costing $39,
793.131 ; yarns, other than cotton, 3,-
309,277 pounds, costing $4,793,221. and
libers, other than cotton, 4.270.470
pounds, costing $3,203,202.

The total value of the cotton goods
produced from these materials was
$701,152,268, divided as follows: 6,815,
045.083 square yards of woven goods,
valued at $488,728,054; 497.986,999
pounds of varns. valued at $127,363,952 ;
26.507.023 pounds of thread, valued at
$22,917,099, and 13.284.875 pounds of
cordage and rope, valued at $2,792,125.
There were 317.360,019 pounds of col
ton waste, valued at $14,421.92!). on
hand at the end of the year. All other
products were valued at $44,037,886.

The woven goods manufactured were
classified as follows : 248,539,379
square vards of ducks, valued at $47.-
921.989*; 489.001,133 square yards of

214

nil; < uIWTRY AXJ) ITS RESOURCES

ginghams, valued ai $36,706,542; 1,422,-
787,368 square yards of fancj weaves,
valued at $131,813,609; 263,862.227
square yards of napped fabrics, valued
at $24,352,020; 29,128,703 square yards
of velvets, corduroys, plushes, etc., val-
ii.d at *s. .-,40.14::; T."..t:;lm;4 ! square
yards of toweling and terry weaves,
valued at $9,805,232; 97,981,783 square
yards of mosquito netting and similar
fabrics, valued at $2,820,524; 129,357,
002 square yards of bags and bagging
valued at $9,705,616; 10,137,710 square
yards of tapestries, valued at $5,411,592;
and 4,048,458,137 square yards of other
woven goods, valued at $211,650,787.

OILCLOTH AND LINOLEUM

The total value of the oilcloth and
linoleum produced by the establishments
engaged in this industry in 1914 was
$25,598,361. There was a decrease of
58.9 per cent in the manufacture of
oilcloth during the year l'.»14. over the
year 1909, the last census year, but
this was more than compensated for by
the increase of 90.1 per cent in the
amount of linoleum manufactured. The
oilcloth produced was divided as fol
lows: 7,536,379 square yards of floor
oilcloth, valued at $1,483,731 : 18,357,-
097 square yards of enameled oilcloth,
valued at $2,495,255; and 59,358,872
square yards of table, wall, shelf and
stair oilcloth, valued at $6,025,348. The
linoleum produced during the same peri-
od was divided as follows : 33,306,669
square yards of plain linoleum, valued

at $10,043,436, and 8,479,202 square
yards of inlaid linoleum, valued at $4.-
725,837. All other products were val-
ued at .'?824.754.

SILK AND SILK GOODS

During the year 1914 there were 900
establishments engaged in the manufac-
ture of silk and silk goods, in which

the following materials were consul 1 :

22,506,759 pounds of raw silk, costing
$86,586,878; 3,080,750 pounds of spun
silk. costing $7,940,156; 1,902,974
pounds of artificial silk, costing $3,440,-
154 ; 4,328,536 pounds of fringe and
tloss. Including waste, noils, etc., cost-
ing $3,066,297; 3,852,399 pounds of
organzine and train, costing sitj.687,346 ;
16,869,511 pounds of cotton yarn, cost-
ing $6,163,240; 1.41.4. 299 pounds of
mercerized cotton yarn, costing $1,078,-
337; 1,987,918 pounds of woolen and
woisted yarn, costing $2,087 804; £,-
Ci4ri.ii.",."> pounds of mohair yarn, costing
$1,604,302: and 291,<>72 pounds of other
yarns, costing I?4.".N.'.I44.

The total value of the finished prod-
ucts was $253,764,170, the various prod-
ucts being classified as follows: 216,-
033,696 yards of broad silks, valued at
$137,719,564; 142,713,359 yards, valued
at $96,689,801, consisting of all silk goods
and 73,320,337 yards, valued at $41,
029,763, consisting of mixed silk goods;
16,318,135 yards of velvets, valued at
$8,570,022; 9,114,992 yards of plushes.
valued at $10:135,S42 ; 477. <!!>!> yards
of upholsteries and tapestries, valued at

WORLDS SILK PRODUCTION

MANUFACTURES

5>1"

$840,126; ribbons to the value of $38,-
201,293 ; laces, nets, veils, etc.. to the
value of $1,328,933 : embroideries to the
value of $33.501) ; fringes and irimps to
the value of $1,025,188 ; braids and
bindings to the value of $3,073,048 ;
tailors' trimmings to the value of $210,-
741 : military trimmings to the value of
$431.422 ; G59.540 pounds of machine
twist silk, valued at $4,030,807; 744,
70S pounds of sewing and embroidery
silks, valued at $5,046,452; 157.791
pounds of fringe and floss silks, valued
at $598,354 ; 1,492.999 pounds of organ-
zine, valued at $6,325,291.; 2.577.4(12
pounds of tram, valued at $9,698,637,
and 1,607.416 pounds of spun silk, val-
ued at $4,577,058. Other products were
valued at $13,516,248.

There were in use, during the year, a
total of 2,794,971 spindles, 85,058 looms
of all kinds, and 6,826 jacquard ma-
chines.

WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS
The total value of all the products of
the 795 establishments engaged in the
manufacture of woolen and worsted
goods, during the year 1914, was $379.-
484,379 as follows: '.Ht.it5o.3sl square
yards of all-wool woolen fabrics, valued
at $55,660,503 ; 222.327.115 square yards
of all-wool worsted fabrics, valued at
$141,778,035; 47.398.289 square yards of
cotton warp woolen fabrics, valued at
$13,598,007; 54.ii67.ols square yards of
cotton warp worsted fabrics, valued at
$14,897,757; 31,400,082 square yards of

cotton-mixed fabrics, valued at $11,710,-
610; 2,176,264 square yards of all-wool
flannels for underwear, valued at sssu.-
494 : 4,995,575 square yards of cotton
mixed flannels for underwear, valued at
$1,089,661 : 16. (t92.266 square yards of
domett flannels and shirtings, valued at
$2,814,054; 36,196,243 square yards of
linings, Italian cloth and Iastings, valued
at $9,804,661: S. 415.079 square yards
of satinets and linsevs. valued at $1.-
535. 291 ; 30.400,973 square yards of
blankets, valued at $9,264,768; 8,164,-
672 square yards of horse blankets, val-
ued at $2,017,782; 514.226 square yards
of carriage cloth, valued at $44.".. 223 ;
1,658,865 square yards of carriage robes.
valued at $1,233,555; 121,213 square
vards of woven shawls, valued at $66,-
365 ; 1,351,262 square yards of uphol-
stery goods, valued at $1,539,381. and
3.569.709 square yards of nil other
woven goods, valued at $1,219,382.
Woolen, worsted, merino, mohair and
cotton yarns, noils and wool waste and
tops and stubbing made for sale were
valued at $101,137,599; all other prod-
ucts were valued at $5,356,615. The
amount received for contract work was
$5,436,636.

There were in operation during the
year 4.220 sets of woolen cards. 2.34s.-
722 mule spinning spindles, 1,531.862
frame spinning spindles. 841.449 doub-
ling and twisting spindles, 56.392 broad
looms, 19.415 narrow looms. 13 hand
looms. 2.294 wool-combing machines. 1,-
201 pickers and 165 garnet machines.

IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURES

BLAST FURNACES

Durint; the year 1914 there were 284
active pig-iron blast furnaces in opera-
tion. The pig-iron products of the 160
establishments operating these furnaces
aggregated 23,269.731 tons, valued at
$312,639,706. and the value of other
products amounted to $4,919,347, making
a total of $317,559,053. The amount
of iron ore used was 43.362,817 tons,
costing $150,975,741. The consumption
of mill cinder, scale, scrap, etc.. was
2,168.092 tons, costing $6,651,055: flux-
ing material, 11.499.685 tons, costing
$11,184,378; coke, the chief fuel for
smelting, 26.883.382 tons, costing $83,-
499.448 ; charcoal. 29.083.978 bushels,
costing $1.683.075 ; and coal, both an-
thracite and bituminous. 99,251 tons,
costing $254,007. The smelting fuels
consumed cost $85,436,530.

Of the total production of 23.269.731
tons of pig-iron, 15,495.004 tons were
for the use of the producers and 7.-
774.747 tons for sale. The pis-iron prod-
uct by grades for the year 1914 was as
follows : Basic, 9.465,853 tons : Bes-
semer and low phosphorus, 7,883.530
tons; foundry, 4.325,100 tons; mallea-
ble, 730.910 tons: forge or mill. 488.172
tons ; white, mottled and miscellaneous,

32,202 tons; direct castings, 14.. ",84 tons
and ferro-alloys, 329,580 tons.

STEEL WORKS AXD ROLLING MILLS

The consumption of pig iron and ferro-
alloys by the 436 establishments pro-
ducing steel and hot-rolled iron and'
steel manufactures as their chief prod-
ucts amounted to 17,060.940 tons in
1914, the cost of these materials being
$248.393. 20S. The plants consumed ap-
proximately 10.045.oo0 tons of scrap, of
which amount 5,065,090 tons were pur-
chased at a cost of $50,301,614, and
5.579.422 tons were produced in the
works where consumed. The consump-
tion of iron ore amounted to 999.459
tons, costing $4,252,087. In addition.
6.440,742 tons of steel ingots, rails for
rerolling and partly finished rolled
products, such as blooms, billets, slabs,
muck and scrap bar. sheet and tin-
plate bars. etc.. produced in certain
mills, were purchased bv others at a
cost of $131. 967. 205.

PRODUCTS

The total products of the steel works
and rolling mills for the year 1914
were valued at $919,527,2 14. The rolled,
forged and other classified iron and steel
products aggregated 25,586,715 tons,

216

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS KESOURCES

TAKING ON A CARGO OF PIG IRON BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC LI
NOTE HOW THE PIGS FLY TO THE MAGNET

rained at $802,976,516, comprising 18.-
526,342 tons of finished rolled products
and forgings, valued at $624,754,421 :
6,408,030 tons of partly finished rolled

products— blooms, hillots. slahs. sheet

hars. tin-plate bars, muck bar, a ml scrap
bar— valued al $130,674,909, and <;."»•_>.-
343 tons of unrolled steel in the form
of ingots and castings, valued at $47,-
547.136.

The finished rolled products and fortr-
ings produced during the year 1!'14 were
classified as follows: Kails. 1.842.041
tons, valued at $54,009,918; rerolled or
renewed rails, <'>•">. (i'l tons, valued at
$1,438,237; rail fastenings (splice hars.
tie-plates, fish-plates, etc.), 348.947
tons, valued at $11,526,956; structural
shapes (not Including plates used for
making girders), 2,083,440 tons, valued
at $57,475,366; bars for reinforced eon
crete, 269.966 tons, valued at $7,751.-
549; merchant bars, 2,474, 677 tons, val-
ued at $84,407,700; spike and chain rods.
boll and nut rods, horseshoe hars. strips,
etc., 536.575 tons, valued at $18,343,812;
wire rods. 2.377,691 tons, valued at $61,-
578.145; plates and sheets, 3,699.249
tons, valued at $129,785,963; black
plates, 1,011.938 tons, valued at $43.
1 IT.oti ; hoops, ha nils
603,940 tons, valued
skelp. flue and pipe.
valued at $52,443,303:
plate, 50,302 tons, valued at $2,008,308;
axles, roiled and forged, 89,418 tons,
valued ai $3,311,202; armor plates, gun
forgings, and ordnance, 38.669 tons.
\alued at $19,947,893; car and locomo
tive wheels, rolled or forged. 137,895
tons, valued al 7.435.798; all other
rolled products, 481,779 tons, valued
at $29,689,872; and all other forged
produi ts, ll 1,402 tons, valued at $19,-
165,900.

AORICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

The total products of the 772 estab
lishments engaged in the manufacture
of agricultural Implements during the
year 1914 were valued at $168,120,632

The various agricultural implements
manufactured comprised .". ::i s.iTC, inl-

and cotton ties.

at $19,945,078;

1,960.844 tons.

nail and tack

plements of cultivation, valued at $39,-
632,903; 634.926 planters and seeders,
valued at $12,268,156; 1,102,389 liar
vesting implements, valued at $40,561,
472: and 140.803 seed separators, val-
ued at $13,986,184. All other products.
including parts for all classes of agri
cultural implements, were valued at $60,
211.327. The amount received for re-
pair work was $1, 400,590.

WIttE

The total products of wire drawing
establishments in V.M4 were valued at
$172,600,587, of which amount $166.
999,888 represented the value of wire
and manufactures of wire. $2,581,000
represented the value of finished prod'
nets other than wire and wire products
and $3,019,699 represented the value
of all other products, including scrap,
copperas, etc.

The total quantity of steel and iron
wire drawn in 1!»14 was 2,465,383 tons.
valued at $116,215,503, and included
459.909 tons of plain wire, valued at
$22,316,778; ::7M7s tons of coated
wire, valued a I $15,949,531 : 12,886,634
tons of wire nails and S] ikes, valued at
$23,368,633; ::::.::::o tons of wire brads,
tacks and staples, value. l at $1,324,948;
343,693 tons of barbed wire, valued at
$13,764,367 : 52,735 tons of wire rope
and strand, valued at $7,973,537; 411.-
460 tons of woven wire fence and poul-
try netting, valued at $19,795,812; 22.-
721 tons of other woven wire products,
valued at $2,822,689; and 122.720 tons
of other fabricated iron ami steel wire
products, valued at $8,899,208.

The total quantity of copper wire

drawn was 135,437 Ions, valued at
$42,928,550, and included 84.921 tons
of hare wire, valued at $26,206,024;
48.386 tons of insulated wire, valued at
$15,709,244; ami 2,130 tons of woven
a ml ot her fabricated copper wire prod
nets, valued at $1,013,282.

There were also produced 39.614.500
pounds of hrass wile and wire products,
valued at $6,366,342; 749,224 pounds
of German-silver wire, valued at $238,
078; .and wire of other metals and al

MANUFACTURES

217

loys brciinze, zinc, nickel and nickel
alloys, and copper clad steel to the val-
ue of $1,251,415.

TIN AND TERNE PLATE

There were ."»1 establishments engaged
in the tin and terne Hate industry in

1014 whose OUtpilt Of Coated plates

amounted to 2,039,566,144 pounds, val-
ued at $66,270,345, comprising 1,901,-

331,895 i nds of tin plate, valued at

$60,258,024, and 138,234,249 pounds of
terne plate (steel or iron plates or sheets
coated with an alloy of tin and lead.
known as terne mixture I, valued at $0.-
012,321. The tin-plate product com-
prised 1,855,892,526 pounds of coke
plate, valued al $58,450,853. and 45.439,-
369 pounds of charcoal plate (steel and
iron i. valued at $1,807,171. The value
of all other products was $2,072,617,

making a total of $68,342,962 for the
\ a lue of all products in 1914.

CAST [RON PIPE

The cast-iron pipe product of 1914
comprised 1,092.208 ne1 ions, valued at
$25,391,714, consisting of 880,556 tons

Of u'iis and water pipe and fittings. val
lied at $19,218,006, and 211,652 tons of
soil and plumbers' pipe and fittings,
valued at $6,173,708. The gas and
water-pipe output was made up of 802.
967 tons of bell and spigol pipe, valued
at $16,228,587; 25.192 tons of flanged
pipe, valued at $645,707; 12,011 tons
of culvert pipe, valued at $246,527 : and
40,386 tons of fittings, valued at $2.
097,185. In addition, there were pro-
duced 26,199 tons of castings other
than pipe and fittings, valued at $741,-
381, and products other than castings,
valued at $1,441,678.

TRANSPORTATION

STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROAD CARS

During the year 1914 there were
138,178 steam and electric cars, valued
at $165,071,427, built in the United
States. Of this number. 3,558 were
steam-passenger cars, valued at .f -4 r. . -
027. 083 and 131,799 were freight and
other cars, valued at $110,002,456. The
number of electric cars manufactured
was 2.821. and their value was $10,-
041.888. For more detailed information
relative to the construction of railroad
cars, locomotives, etc.. the reader is
referred to the special chapter on "Rail-
roads of the United States."
CARRIAGES AND WAGONS AND MATERIALS

The total value of the carriages and
wagons and materials manufactured in
1914 was $135,792,357. There were
1 187.002 vehicles of all classes, valued
at $72,283,989, including 558.402 car-
riages, value, 1 at $34,193,518; 572,613
wagons, valued at $36,533,152; 1.287
public conveyances, valued at $325,269 ;
and 54,700 sleighs and sleds, valued at
$1,231,959. other products, parts, re-
pairs, etc.. were valued at $63,508,459.
There was a decrease of 25.1 per cent
in the production of vehicles during
1014 over 1909. due to the inroad of the
automobile into the carriage and wagon
industry. This has been greater with
respect to pleasure vehicles than to
those used for business purposes.
SHIPBUILDING

During the year 1!tl4 there were 1 .-
145 establishments engaged in the ship
building and boatbuilding industry,
whose products — that is. construction

and repair work done during the year.
were valued at $88,682,071. The value
of work done on new vessels of rive gross
tons and over was $42,545,445, of which
amount $36,295,758 represented the val-
ue of work done on iron and steam ves-
sels and $6,249,687 the value of work
done on wooden vessels. The value of
work done on boats of less than five
gross tons was $3,788,689. The value of
repairs made in 1914 was $32,835,212.
All other products were valued at $9,-
512.725.

The total number of vessels of five
gross tons and over launched during
1014 was 1.113 with a gross tonnage of
424.660. There were launched 126 iron
and steel vessels with a gross tonnage of
242.559; and 987 wooden vessels with
a gross tonnage of 182.101. Classified
according to power, there were launched
140 steam vessels, gross tonnage 2"4.
636; 427 motor-driven boats, gross ton-
nage 13.220; -to sailing vessels, gross
tonnage 2.224, and 506 unrigged vessels,
gross tonnage 174.580. There were ::,-
706 jiower boats of less than five gross
tons launched during the year.

MOTORCYCLES, BICYCLES ANT) PARTS
The total value of the motorcycles.
bicycles and parts manufactured during
1014 was $25,486,942. There were man
ufactured 02.70:; motorcycles, valued at
$12,306,447, an increase in number of
2."7.1 per cent over the year 1909. and
398,899 bicycles, valued at $5,361,229.

AUTOMOBILES
A special chapter on "Automobiles"
Is given as under Chapter XVIII.

THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY

ELECTRICAL MACHINERY, APPARATUS AND
SUPPLIES

There were 1,121 establishments en-
gaged in the manufacture of electrical-

machiiieiv apparatus, during the year

191 I. whose products, for the year, were
\alued at $359,412,676.

The output of dynamos, including
parts and supplies, in 1014 was valued
at $23,233,437. This includes dynamo-

21S

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

tors, motor generators, boosters, rotary
converters, double-currenl generators,
etc., 8.393 in Dumber, with an aggregate
rapacity of 7S0.009 kilowatts and val
ued at $5,367,895; 20S.548 small direct-
currenl dynamos and automobile self-
starters, valued at $5,933,273; 9,633
direct current dynamos, including gen
erators for direct connection to steam
turbines, with an aggregate capacity of
221,221 kilowatts and valued at $2,-
967.467; 2.512 alternating current dy-
namos, including generators for direct
connection to steam turbines, with an
aggregate capacity of 1,188.005 kilo
watts and a value of $7,437,445. The
transformers manufactured in 1914 ag
gregated 115,843 in number, with •_'.-
644.794 kilowatts capacity, and were
valued al $13,120,065. There were no.
iiT machines of less than 5U-kilowatt
capacity, valued at $7,310,615; 1.857

speed controlling devices, feeder poten
tial regulators, reactances, voltage rc-_'u
lators. and rectifying apparatus to the
value of $9,936,343; light and power
switchboards, panel hoards and cut-oul
cabinets, valued at $8.989,11 1 : batter
ies. storage and primaries, and parts and
supplier. $23,402,455; lamps. $17,350.
385; arc lamps, searchlights, projectors
anil focusing lamps. $2,823,687 : tele
phones, telephone switchboards, and
parts and supplies. $22,815,640; tele-
graph apparatus, including wireless.
switchboards, ami parts and supplies.
$2,248,375; electric beating apparatus,
including air heaters, cooking devices.
Hat irons, and welding apparatus. $4.-
034.436; electric measuring instruments.
$8,786,506; electrical therapeutic ap
paratus, $2,653,098: insulated wires aim
cables, $69,505,573; electric conduits,
underground ami interior, $4,874,709 ;

Edison dynamo of 1883
THE FIRST CENTRAL POWER STATION IN THE UNITED STATES

of from 50 to .".no kilowatt capacitv.
valued al $2,625, 111: and 800 of 500
kilowatts and over, valued at $3,178,036

The output of motors, including parts
and supplies, was valued at $44,176,235.
This includes -llT.'.e.ej motors tor in
ilii trial power and for railway use. with
an aggregate capacity of 2.882.795 horse
power, and a value of $32,256,149; 11.
sso motors for automobiles, having an
ite horse-power of 36,858 and
valued al $1,351,442; motors for fans
to the value of $4,835,850 and miscel-
laneous motors valued at $1,190,564.

Other products were: Rheostats, re
sistances, controllers, motor-starting and

magneto-ignition apparatus, spark pIul-s.
coils, etc. $22,260,847; electric switches,
signals and attachments. $6,393,551 :
carbons for furnace, lighting, hrushes.
battery, etc. $3,602,741 ; annunciators.
$263,806; electric docks and time
mechanisms, $410,774; and various
other kinds of electric equipment, in
eluding sockets, receptacles ami bases.
some electric lighting fixtures, lightning
arresters, fuses, circuit Strings, and an
classified electric machinery, apparatus
and supplies, $44,907,658. The last
item includes electric locomotives, mine
and railway, of which there were '.too.

valued at $3,720,914.

MANUFACTURES

219

THE LEATHER INDUSTRY

There were tanned during the year
1914. 138,547,692 hides and skins, as
follows: L7.457.591 cattle hides, costing
$148,751,002. 10.007.7!)." calf and kip
skins, costing $33,117,713; 37,755,867
goat and kid skins, costing $23,916,965;
40,090,198 sheep and lamb skins, cost-
ing $19,247,682, and 1,250,245 horse-
hides. 1,095,360 kangaroo skins, 233,180
eolt skins and a number of hog, pig,
deer, buck, seal, dog. alligator, shark,
elk. moose and other skins, costing
$8,414,129.

The leather products, valued at $348.-
950. S72. were divided as follows : 18.-
097.665 sides of sole leather, valued at
$110,347,190; 973,591 belting butts,
valued at $12,876,554; 2.943.720 sides
of harness leather, valued at $21,745.-
80S ; upholstery — automobile, furniture
and carriage — leather to the value of
$14,328 35s ; bookbinders' leather to the
value of $1,302,073 : 8.245.904 sides of
cattle side upper leather, valued at
$32,939,139 ; 905.350 sides of horse
leather, valued at $2.881,924 : glove
leather to the value of $3,286,352;
rough leather to the value of $4,511,251 :
66,368,840 skins of upper leather,
valued at $85,051,550 ; 7,698,452 skins
of patent leather. valued at $15,-
590.S12; 7.480.200 skins of fancy
leather, valued at $8,775,908: 1.004.581
sides of case, bag and strap leather,
valued at $5,383,255; 1.94S.533 skins
of chamois, valued at $925,492 ; and all
other leather — lace, collar, saddlery,
suspender, piano action leather, etc. —
to the value of $21,249,110.

LEATHER CLOVES AND MITTENS

During the year 1914. there were 352
establishments engaged in the leather
glove and mitten industry with products
valued at $21,014.10!). There were pro-
duced 3,082,370 dozen pairs of gloves,

mittens and gauntlets, valued at $20.-
296,558, and other products to the value
of $20,296,558.

The production of men's gloves, mit-
tens and gauntlets was 2,367,263 dozen
pairs, valued at $15,334,605, of which
1.571.04!) dozen pairs, value,] at $11,-
280,801, were unlined : 594,880 dozen
pairs, valued at $3,584,118, wen' lined;
and 200,734 dozen pairs, valued at $403.-
('.20. were part leather and part fabric.
Of the 425.501 dozen pairs of women's
and children's gloves, mittens and gaunt-
lets, 325,530 dozen pairs, valued at $3.-
190,701, were unlined. and 99.971 dozen
pairs, valued at $760,409. were lined.
Of the 289.612 dozen pairs of boys'
gloves, mittens and gauntlets. 51.797
dozen pairs, valued at $199,030 were un-
lined. and 237,815 dozen pairs, valued
at $799,153, were lined.

FOOTWEAR

The 1.355 establishments engaged in
the manufacture of footwear, during
1914. produced a total of 292,666.468
pairs of footwear, valued at $501,707,937.
The total output of boots and shoes
amounted to 252.510.003 pairs, of which
98,031,144 pairs were for men ; 22,895,
719 pairs for boys and youths: 80,916.-
239 pairs for women, and 48,322,395
pairs for misses and children. There
were produced 2,351.100 pairs of fiber
shoes of all classes. The output of
slippers, not including infants' slippers
and slippers made from felt or other
fiber, amounted to 17,733,689 pairs. Of
this number. 3,000.972 pairs were for
men, boys and youths and 14,066,717
pairs were for women, misses and chil-
dren. The output of infants' shoes and
slippers was 15,476,763 pairs. The out-
put of all other footwear, including ath
letic. sporting, logging and mining shoes.
sandals, and felt and other fiber slip
pers. was 0,939.413 pairs.

PAPER, PRINTING AND PUBLISHING

PAPER AND WOOD PULP

The production of wood pulp in 1914
amounted to 2,894,650 tons. In addi-
tion to the domestic production there
were used 534.395 tons of imported
pulp. Other materials used were as fol-
lows : 371,340 tons of rags. 1,577,845
tons of waste paper, 121. 230 tons of
rope. jute, bagging, threads, etc., and
309.345 tons of straw.

The total value of the paper produced
in 1914 was $294,355,875 and was di-
vided as follows: 1,313,284 tons of
news paper, valued at $52,942,774 : 7S6.-
020 tons of plain book paper, valued at
$58,496,626; 117.342 tons of coated
book paper, valued at $11,605,584; 9.332
tons of plate, lithograph, map. wood
cut book paper, valued at $588,332: 21.-
*J79 tons of book cover paper, valued at

$2,809,377: 83,010 tons of cardboard.
Bristol board, card middles, tickets, etc..
valued at $5,376,434; 247.72S tons of
fine paper, valued at $34,054,918, In
eluding 195,351 tons of writing paper,
valued at $28,037,257: 8M.799 tons of
wrapping paper, valued at $49,372,753 :
1,288,527 tons of wood pulp, straw,
news and hinders' board, and all other
board, valued at $41,870,947; 121.598
tons of tissue paper, valued at $11,535.-
720; 14.157 tons of blotting paper, val
tied at $1,457,897; 243,908 tons of build
ing (roofing, asbestos and sheathing)
paper, valued at $9 175.7::.".: 96,527 tons
of hanging papers, valued at $4,488,910;
and 130,459 tons of miscellaneous pa
per. valued at $9,890,641. All
products manufactured for sale were
valued at $40,558,708

220

OIK COUNTRY a;\'1> ITS RESOURCES

I'KI NI'INC am> publishing
During the year 191 I there were
31,612 establishments engaged in print-
ing and publishing, of which number
U'.ll."i were engaged chiefly in the print
lug and publishing of books and pamph-
lets, or in job printing, 180 in the
printing and publishing of music and
1!)..'!17 in the printing and publishing
of newspapers and periodicals.

The total value <>f products for 1914,
of establishments printing and publish-
ing newspapers and periodicals, was
$495,905,984. The revenues of the news
paper establishments comprised news-
paper subscriptions and sales. $99,541,-
860; newspaper advertising, $184,047,-
106; subscriptions and sales of periodi-
cals other than newspapers, $64,035,-
230; and advertising in such periodicals,
$71,906,976.

The value of products of establish
ments engaged chiefly in book and job
work of all kinds aggregated $307,330,-
861. The total receipts for job print
ing, for the entire printing and pub

lishing industry, were $249,730,932; for
bonks and pamphlets, $87,316,348; for
bookbinding and blank bonks. $15,097,
109; for electrotyping, engraving, litho-
graphing, etc., $9,698,641; for machine
composition for others. $5,682,098; for
read} prints (patent insides and oul
sides). $1,965,210; and for all other
products, $13,860,525. The receipts from
music printing and publishing for the
entire industry were $7,626,076.
During the year 1914 there w
74.~> newspapers and periodicals pub
lished. There were 2,580 daily news
papers with an aggregate circulation of
28,436,030; 570 Sunday papers, with a
circulation of 16,445,820; sj triweeklj
newspapers, with a circulation of 549.-
4:».i ; 583 semiweekly newspapers, with
a circulation of 2.483,629; 15,166 week
Iy newspapers, with a circulation of 50,
454,738; _.nJh monthly publications,
with a circulation of 79,190,838; 500
quarterly publications, with a circula
thm of 18.852,401 : and 142 other pub
lications, with a circulation ol 8,946,567.

CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS

CHEMICALS

The value of the chemical products
produced in 1!»14 was as follows: Acids,
$30,001,364 : alums. $3,467, 969 ; bleach-
ing materials. ?4,964,403 ; cyanides, .?:;.-
398,674; plastics. $13,895,784; sodas,
$22,616,696; sodium products, $8,280,-
572; compressed or liquefied gases, $8,-
097,720; chemicals produced with the
aid of electricity, $29,661,649; potash
and potassium salts. $4,094,927; coal-
tar products, $8,839,506; fine chemicals
— that is. chemicals sold in the trade as
chemically pure, such as ether, chloro-
form, etc. $10,316,519, and general
chemical products. -S 1 7 . 7 ! m ', . *_' 7 1 .

In addition to the allied products
which an' treated below in some detail.

there wepe produced essential oils to the

value of $2,565,361; refined petroleum

to the value of $396,361,405 and prod-
ucts of wood distillation to the value of
$10,236,332.

DYEST1 lis ami EXTRACTS

The total products of the dyestuff and
ei rad Industry in 1914 \\ ere valued
at $21,341,122 and Included dyestuffs
valued at $7,118,528, tanning materials
valued at $7,840,057, mordants, assis-
tants, and sizes valued at $5,044,225,
ami other products to the value of si..
::::s.::io.

EXPLOSIVES

The total production of explosives,
excluding exports, in tin' United states
during 1915 was 460.900,796 pounds, as
follows: Black blasting powder, r.'T.-
722,300 pounds; "high" explosives, 235,-
828,587 pound-;: and permissible ex-
plo I v es, 27,3 19 909 pounds.

FEBT1LIZERS

The output of fertilizers in 1914 ag-
gregated 8,414,959 net tons, valued at
$152,815,786, consisting of 4,488,565
tons of complete fertilizers, valued at
$97,046,825; 1,116,739 tons of ammoni
ated fertilizers, valued at $24,344,273 :
1,760,290 tons of superphosphates, acid
phosphates. and concentrated phos-
phates, valued at $16,145,659; ami 1.
049,365 tons of other fertilizers, valued
at $15,279,031. In addition, then' were
manufactured for sale other products to
the vain.' of $15,572,619, Including oil.
glue, grease, hone black, sulphuric acid,
chemicals, etc.

TAINTS AMD VARNISHES

The principal materials used by the
855 establishments engaged in the manu
facture of paints and varnishes in L914
were as follows: 149,968 tons (2,000
pounds each) of pig lead, costing $11,
424,544; 887,273 gallons of grain al-
cohol, costing $360,737; 919.581 gallons

of w l alcohol, costing $387,539; 24,

025,502 gallons of lins 1 oil. costing

$11,843,236; and 48.113,516 pounds of
gum. costing 4.r,r.-_>.:»7-_' .

The total vali i' the products from

these materials was $149,049,820 and In-
cluded colors or pigments, valued at
$17,407,955; oil paints, valued at $70,
582,461 : water paints and kalsomine,
valued at $2,202,281 : varnishes and
japans, valued ai $36,061,203; tillers.
Including putty, valued at $3,239,174;
bleached shellac valued at $1,806,802;
and other products valued at si7.
749,94 l-

The production of white lead was
247,971,503 pounds, of which 71,643,812

MANUFACTURES

:ji

pounds, valued at $3,697,702, was mar
keted dry, and 199,726,280 pounds was
made into and marketed in the form of
paint. The total production of lead
was 61,335.290 pounds, of which 58,
642,588 pounds, valued at $3,281,716,
was sold as lead oxides.

TURPENTINE AXD ROSIN

The total output of the 1,392 tur-
pentine distilleries in operation in 1914
was valued at $20,968,684 and consisted
of 26,980,981 gallons of spirits of tur-
pentine, valued at $10,510,407; 2.885,-
077 barrels of rosin, valued at $10,332,-
700; and dross, valued at $125,577.

SOAP

The products of the 51.°. establish-
ments engaged in the manufacture of

soap during 1914 were valued at $135,
340,499. The soap products were valued
at $107,030,620 and other products, in
eluding glycerine, at $29,142,533. The
production of hard soaps was 2,064,
228,000 pounds, valued at $104,500,542
and comprised 938,447,000 pounds of
tallow soap, 42.524,000 pounds of olein
soap, 1 11. or,:;, ooo pounds of foot soap,
169,926,000 pounds of toilet soap. 367,-
744,000 pounds of powdered soap, !»7.
74(1. ooo pounds of soap chips, and 336,-
77s. ooo pounds of other kinds of hard
soap. The production of soft soap was
57,002,000 pounds, valued at $1,697,424.
In addition, there were special soap
articles, such as soaps for technical
purposes, and liquid soap, to the value
of $832,654.

MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES

GLASS

During the year 1914 there were 247
establishments engaged in the manufac-
ture of glass, the products Of which were

valued at $122,964,792. The value of
building glass produced was $36,794,869.
as follows : 400,998,893 square feet of
window glass, valued at $17,466,756 :
43,040,079 square feet of obscured glass,
including cathedral and skylight glass.
valued at $2,417,253; 60,515,008 square
feet of plate glass, valued at $14,799,646 :
15.6SS.844 square feet of wire glass.
valued at $1,590,934; and all other
building glass, to the value of $520,280.
The pressed and blown glass produced
was valued at .$30,130,077 : bottles, jars,
etc., $51,425,022; and all other prod-
ucts, $4,614,824.

THE GAS IXDCSTRY

The consumption of gas-making fuels
by the 1.284 gas companies in 1914 com-
prised 0.110.072 tons of coal, costing
$20,872,517; 710.019,357 gallons of oil.
costing $24,934,184: 964.851 tons of
coke, costing $4,706,602; and 31.749.491
pounds of calcium carbide, costing $778.-
037. There was also purchased by the
gas companies 28,351.074.000 cubic feet
of gas, at a cost of $8,883,016, a por-
tion of which was enriched and sold,
and the remainder sold as purchased.

The gas products comprise 203.-
730,191.000 cubic feet of gas. val-
ued at $175,065,930, consisting of
10.509.940,000 cubic feet of straight
coal gas. valued at $10,726,514; 90,017,-
725,000 cubic feet of carbureted water
gas. valued at $74. 510.534 ; 80.281.-
339,000 cubic feet of mixed coal and
water gas. valued at $72,012,021; 16.-
601,805,000 cubic feet of oil gas, valued
at $15,044,509; 137,964.000 cubic feet
of acetylene, valued at $2,511,634; and
181.412.ooit cubic feet of other gas,
chiefly if not entirely gasoline gas, val-
ued at $254,718. In addition, the gas
plants produced for sale 114.091,753
bushels of coke, valued at $8,719,910;

125,938.607 gallons of tar. valued at
$3,252,756; and ammonia liquors, am
uionium sulphate, and hydrocarbons,
valued at $1,405,540. They also sold
"other products" — consisting largely of
gas purchased for sale — to the value of
$20,815,871. Iteeeipts from rents and
sales of lamps and appliances aggre-
gated $10,977,774.

ARTIFICIAL ICE

The total cost of ammonia used in
the manufacture of ice in 191 I was $1,-
529,775. There were 5,405,917 pounds
of anhydrous ammonia used, costing $1.-
422.190 and 1,927.664 pounds of aqua
ammonia, costing $107,579.

The total value of all products for
the year was $60,352,236. There were
produced 17,086,400 tons of can ice.
valued at $52,110,457. and 1,179.092
tons of plate ice. valued at $3,107,839.
Other products were valued at $5,-
127,940.

RUBBER GOODS

The products of the .':.".l establish
ments engaged in the manufacture of
rubber goods during the vear 1014 were
valued at $300,251,827. Tin- production
of rubber tires was valued at $146,411,-
692 and formed 4vs per cent of the
total value of all kinds of rubber manu-
factured. There were manufactured
8,020,815 automobile tires or casings,
valued at $105,671,223; 7,906,993 auto
mobile inner tubes, valued at $20,098,
936; solid tires for motor and other
vehicles to the value of $13,735,681 :
and 3,728,138 motorcycle, bicycle ami
aeroplane tires, valued at $6,905,852.

There were manufactured during the
year 4.024.486 pairs of boots, valued
a1 $12,647,934, and 57.211.728 pairs of
shoos, valued at $37,858,222. The value
of rubber clothing produced was so, : 396,-
810; of garden, fire, and other hose.
$16,853,693; of rubber belting, $7,989.
405; of rubber packing, $3,507,651; of
druggists' and stationers' sundri

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

527,755; Mn<] of miscellaneous manu-
factures of rubber, $:;;i.'tS:;?yt;:i.

STEAM LAUNDRIES

In the year 1914 there were 6,097
steam laundries in the United States.
with 149,100 persons engaged in the
industry. The capital invested was
$98,055,001. The cost of materials was
$26,919,200 and of services, $71,764,059.
The amount received for work done,
which is regarded as the product of the
industry, was $142,503,253.

GLUCOSE AND STARCH

The principal materials used in the
manufacture of glucose and starch are
corn, potatoes and wheat flour, the con-
sumption of these materials in 1914
being 2,488,792,405 pounds, 169,878.784
pounds, and 14,198,049 pounds, respec
tively. The total value of the manu-
factured products was $51,676,653. The
principal products were 620.764,347
pounds of starch, valued at $15,783,-
781; 847,180.968 pounds of glucose, in-
eluding all sirups, valued at $18,541,
429; 174,368,818 pounds of grape
sugar, valued at $3,765,515; 8.861,579
gallons of corn oil, valued at $3,693,163;
and 143,001,065 pounds of corn oil cake
ami meal, valued at $] 829,305. Stock
feed was valued a* $6,690,412, and all
other products at $1,373,048.

PIANOS AND ORGANS AND MATERIALS

The total value of the pianos, organs

and materials manufactured in 1!»14 was
$68,769,476. The number of pianos
manufactured was 325.893, valued at
$56,266,362. There were 2'2~ , oof, up
rijjht pianos without player attach-
ments, valued at $31,385,881 : K7.808
upright pianos for (or with) player
attachments, valued at $20,265,514;
9,698 grand pianos without player at
tachments, valued at $4,201,302; and
831 grand pianos for (or with) player
attachments, valued at $413,665. There
were 6,493 separate player attachments
manufactured with a value of $s.~>4.774.
The number of organs manufactured
was 42,806, valued at $6,378,312. There
were 2,273 pipe organs, valued at $4,-

660.301, and 40,533 r 1 organs, valued

at $1,718,011. The value of perforated
music rolls manufactured was $833,357 ;
piano parts, materials and supplies,
•S-.7'.<"J.,.»4l; ; and all other products,
$1,643,729.

PHONOGRAPHS, GRAPHOPHONES \M>
TALKING MACHINES

The number of phonographs, grapho-
phones ami talking machines, including
office dictating instruments. manufac-
tured during 1914, amounted to 515,154
machines, with a value of $15,290,491
The 27,221,290 records and blanks pro-
duced were valued at $11,111,418. Parts.
materials ami supplies were valued at
$356,935 and other products at $357,072.

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

NOTHING in modern invention,
in the progress of labor-saving
devices, in the application of
invention to every-day life, can show
a parallel with the remarkable de-
velopment of the automobile.

Everyone whose memory goes
back ten or fifteen years can see to
some extent the effects of this de-
velopment, but only figures can give
an adequate idea of the wonderful
growth of the industry from nothing
to its present huge proportions.

In 1914 there were three hundred
establishments devoted to the manu-
facture of automobiles exclusively,
producing 573.114 cars. A total of
91,997 people were employed, of
which GO were firm members or pro-
prietors, 12,630 salaried employees,
and 79,307 wage earners. The capi-
tal employed in the industry aggre-
gated $312,N76,000, and a total of
$84,901,000 was disbursed in pay-
ment for services, $66,935,000 for
wages, and the balance. $17,966,000,
for salaries.

Materials to the value of $292,-
598,000 were purchased for the man-
ufacture of automobiles. The manu-
facturing process added $210,632,000
to this, giving a value of automo-
biles made in 1914 as $503,230,000.

These figures, of course, represent
only a part of the automobile in-
dustry, and, indeed, so rapid is its
progress that 1916 figures, if they
were obtainable, would show a large
increase over those given.

The manufacture of automobile
bodies and parts is in itself an
enormous industry, sprung, almost

overnight, with the demand for more
automobile members than the mak-
ers of the machine themselves could
supply.

In addition, in 1914, 33 establish-
ments primarily engaged in other
lines of manufacture, produced auto-
mobiles to the value of $6,636,920,
and 434 establishments of this char-
acter manufactured automobile bod-
ies and parts to the value of $10,-
515,070.

Nine hundred and seventy-one es-
tablishments, employing a total of
53,954 people, made automobile parts
and bodies in 1914. Seven hundred
were firm members or proprietors,
5,469 salaried employees, and 47,785
wage earners. Capital was invested
in the industry to the amount of $91.-
854,000, and $54,552,000 was paid out
for services rendered. $19,560,000 for
salaries, and $34,992,000 for wages.
Materials valued at $63,610,000 were
worked into products valued at $129,-
601,000, the process thus adding $65,-
991,000 to the worth of the raw ma-
terial.

At the 1909 census. 315 establish-
ments engaged in the manufacture
of automobiles either as a primary
or as a subsidiary product ; and
their output was 127.2S7 machines,
valued at $165,099,404. During the
five years, 1909-1914. there lias been
an increase of 350.3 per cent in the
number of automobiles manufac-
tured, and of lsl.7 per cent in their
total value.

Of the automobiles manufactured
during 1914, those operated by gaso-
line or steam power numbered 568,-

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

•_'•_' t

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

399, and those operated by electri-
city, 4,71.r>, as compared with 123,-
452 operated by gasoline or steam,
and 3,835 by electric power, manu-
factured in 1909. The increase dur-
ing the live years in the number of
gasoline and steam machines manu-
factured is thus 360.4 per cent, and
in the number of electrics, 22.9%.

Touring cars formed the principal
type manufactured during both cen-
sus years. In 1914 the output of
this class of machines was 454,876,
valued at $351,585,518, compared
with 76,189, valued at $113,510,575
in 1000. Of the total products for
1914. the number designed for pleas-
ure or family use was 544,255, com-
pared with 119,190 in 1909. For bus-
iness purposes and for use as public
cabs, omnibuses, ambulances, patrol

wagons, fire-fighting machines, and

for ether business purposes, 21.111
machines were manufactured in
1914, compared with 4,262 in 1909.
The output Of delivery wagons and
trucks was 22,753 in 1914, compared
with 2.771 iu 1909.

IIORSE-I'OWKH

The production of vehicles of less
than 10 horse-power amounted to
only 391 in 1014: of from 10 to 10
horse-power, to 45.11G; of from 20
to 29 horse-power, to 346,399; of
from 30 to 49 horse-power, to 163,-
46S; and of 50 horse-power or more.
to 13,025. It is interesting to note
that 104.0s.-; horse-power is devel-
oped in the automobile manufactur-
ing plants and C.s.Tin in the plants
making bodies and parts.

A GLORIOUS VIEW FROM THE PIKES PEAK AUTO HIGHWAY

THE OLD AND THE NEW TRANSPORTATION

226

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

COMPARISOiN KM19-14

The following table, listing the
totals of automobile manufacturers

and makers of bodies and parts,
shows in a graphic way the growth
of the industry.

It is not. however, only in the
statistics of the industry that its
effects are to be shown. An auto-

State of New York in 190] and
amounted to only $954. other States
gradually took up the registration of
motor vehicles, chauffeurs, and oper-
ators, but for several years revenue
from these sources was negligible.
The total amount collected by the
various States in 1905 amounted to
only $62,500. The increase in sub-

TABLE SHOWING GROWTH OF THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

Number of establishments

Machines manufactured

Persons engaged in manufacture:

Proprietors and firm members

salaried employees

Wage earners

Primary horsepower

( lapital

Sen ices

Salaries

Wages

Materials

Value Of products

Value added by manufacture (value of prod
nets less cost of materials')

$173

58

9

48

131

249

127
85

9,

7.r>
75
,837
173
479
694
646
201'

743
2S7
359
105
233
721
:,.-,( I
000
000
000
000
000
000

117,556.000

1,271
573,11 l

145,951

760

18,099

127.092
173,684

S1O7.730.00O

139,453,000
37,526,000

101,927.000
356,208,000

ti32.s31.000

276,623,000

mobile is not like a pair of shoes,
bought, used up and discarded in a
year f<> make room for a new pair.
The automobile is bought and kept
for several seasons, so thai only a
pari of the new output is absorbed

by the experienced owner. The re-
sult is that the automobile wealth —
or money invested in machines which
3 et have a tangible and tremendous
value — is almost beyond computa-
tion.

NUMBER OF CABS

Only the registration of automo-
biles I in the absence of a census I

can give any adequate idea of how
many machines are actually in use.

During the past ten years the
Stale registration of motor ears, in-
cluding commercial vehicles, has in-
Creased 5,000 per cent, or from a boot
18,000 in 1906, to 2, 1 15,664 in 1915.

The lirst revenue derived by tin-
State governments from automobile
registration was collected in the

sequent years has been almost phe-
nomenal, and during 1915 the total
gross revenues derived from the reg-
istration of motor vehicles and the
licensing of operators, chauffeurs,
dealers, etc.. amounted to $18,245,-
7i::.

Motor vehicles registered under
the general designation of automo-
biles, motor trucks, and commercial
vehicles in continental United States
during 1915 amounted to 2,445,664.
The road mileage of the United
states outside id' incorporated towns
and cities is approximately 2,375,000
miles. There is. therefore, an aver-
age of slightly more than one car
for each mile of rural public road.
The distribution among the several
Slates, however, is far from uni-
form. There is only one motor for
every si\ miles of road in Nevada,
while in New Jersey there are nearly
six motor cars per mile of road.
With an average of one motor car
for every 11 persons, in the United

Good Roads and Auto Buses Add Greatly to Our Pleasures

The Modern Land Houseboat Is Like a Gipsy Caravan

A Modern "Jitney" Bus

SOME COLLECTIVE MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION

228

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

States, in [owa there is one for ev
ery 16 persons, bul only one for
every 200 persons in Alabama.

u ioMnmu: a< i im.\ i s

That more just laws, an apprecia-
tion of the other fellow's rights and
a standard of good driving, set by
familiarity and public opinion, are
having their effect upon "Safety
First" is unquesl ionable.

From 1909 to 1914 the number of
automobiles increased more than
twice as rapidly as the number of

area in L914; and the increase from
1913 to 1914, for the registration
area as constituted in 1913, then
containing •;."> per cent of the popu-
lation of the country, was from
2,488 to 2,795.

Thus a live-year increase of 77o
per cent in number of machines has
been accompanied by an increase of
315 per cent in automobile fatalities:
and a one-year increase of .'Is per
cent in Dumber of machines has been
accompanied by an increase of 12
per cent in fatalities.

WRECKING TRUCK FOR ENGINEER
CORPS SERVICE

AUTOMOBILE GENERAL REPAIR SHOP
FOR ENGINEERING CORPS SERVICE

fatalities caused by them. Accord-
ing to figures of the National Auto
mobile Chamber of Commerce, the
number of automobiles in use in the
United States was in 1904 approxi-
mately 200,000; by the close of 1913
it had risen to 1,270,000; at the end
of 191 I. to 1,750,000.

The number of deaths due to auto
mobile accidents, and injuries, in-
creased from 632 in the death-regis-
tration area in 1909 (containing 56

pel' cent of the population of (lie
I nitcd States) to 2,623 in the same

A more reliable comparison can
be made between the increase in
number of automobiles and the in-
crease in the rate per 100,000 popu-
lation for deaths caused by them.
On this basis, a five-year increase of
7T.*> per cent in number of machines
has been aeci nnpa nied by an increase
of 258 per cent in the death rate re-
sulting from automobile fatalities.
Similarly, a one-year increase of
38' , in number of automobiles has
taken place along with an increase
of only l(j' c in the death rate.

Views on the Columbia River Highway
WHAT THE ENGINEER HAS DONE FOR THE AUTOMOBILIST

CHAPTER XIX.

THE RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN

COMMERCE

By SECRETARY OF COMMERCE WILLIAM C. REDFIELD

FOREIGN trade has in less than
three years become one of the
most important factors in the
industrial life of our nation. The
change has been so sudden that its
significance is not fully understood
even by all those directly inter-
ested. It is not merely that we
have become, almost over night, the
world's greatest trading nation. For
a great many years we have ranked
near the top, especially in exports.
It is rather that our whole attitude
toward foreign markets has changed.
Our attitude now is one of enthu-
siasm, where formerly we were
indifferent or only casually inter-
ested.

Once upon a time our foreign
trading consisted of selling abroad
our raw agricultural and mineral
products and buying in turn such
manufactured products as we need-
ed. This sort of commerce can be
carried on with little effort. As a
matter of fact it never required
much effort on our part and it never
brought us in very close contact
with the problems of world trade.
We did not have an international
point of view.

It was many years before Amer-
ican manufacturers found them-
selves in a position to export their
products. From the start the home
market was a rich one and one with
which we kept pace only with diffi-
culty. The first foreign shipments
of any consecpience were largely the
result of "hard times" at home,
which in the past have been almost

periodical with us. The shipments
abroad were an effort to keep the
wheels in motion while the demand
at home was slack. Considerable
temporary success attended this de-
parture, although the practice of
supplying customers with products
one year and disappointing them the
next is not one that makes for cor-
dial trade relations. Experience in
foreign trade methods was gained,
however, in this way and more than
one manufacturer was led to estab-
lish permanent export departments.
.Some put their export business on a
sound basis, while others began a
sort of permanent "dumping" busi-
ness abroad aimed to reduce over-
head charges per unit on all goods
manufactured. In the latter case
the American consumer, however,
derived no benefit from the in-
creased efficiency resulting from the
nearer approach to maximum capa-
city output, and the manufacturers
themselves felt no real enthusiasm
for foreign trade. It was not the
proper way to win the place in
world trade to which we are en-
titled by reason of our unparalleled
resources, our capacity for indus-
trial organization, and our intelli-
gent and industrious workmen.

That the development of Amer-
ican commerce may be easily traced,
a table is inserted here which shows
the total exports and imports for
a long period of years, and also the
traoe of our principal commercial
rivals, the United Kingdom, Ger-
many and France.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

232

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED

STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE FROM

1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAH

United States

United Kingdom

Year '

Total ex-

Total ex-

Import •

Export -

- and

N( i

Domesl ic

ports and

imports

imports

exports

imports

i.ooo dollars

1,000 dollar:

.000 dollars

1,000 dollars

1,000 dollazs

1870. . .

435,958

392,772

828,730

1,259,270

071 285

2,230 555

1S71 . . .

520,224

442,820

963,04 i

1,316,417

1,085,551

2,401,968

1872.

626,595

4 44.17-

1,070,773

t, 442,250

1.2 1.

2,689,325

1873. .

642,136

522,480

i 101.010

1,535,123

1.24 1.700

2.770 883

L874

507. 106

586,283

1,153,689

1,518,304

1,165 sin

2,684,113

1875. .

533,005

513,443

I.O10. lis

i ,536 si i

1 087,497

2,624,308

1876 . . .

460.7-11

540,385

1. OOi.120

1,552,501

070.410

2 528,91 1

1S77. . .

451,323

002.4 7.".

1,053,798

i 659,316

967,913

2.027.220

1878. . .

437.052

694

1,131,918

1,538, 176

938,500

2, 170.070

1879. .

445,778

710,439

1.17.0.217

1,487,884

032.000

2.410.074

1 SSI ,

667,955

835,639

1,503,594

1,692.939

1,085,521

2,778, 160

1881

642,665

002.377

15,042

1,625,227

1,138,873

2,764, 100

1 882

724,640

77.0. 542

1,47

1.002.00.-,

1,175 099

2,867,794

1883

723,181

823,839

,547,020

1,758,043

1,161

2,925,025

1884

667,698

740,514

1,408,212

1,591,720

1.134,016

2,725,736

1 885

577,527

7 12.100

,319 717

1.. ".21.3 12

1 037,124

2.55s. 136

1886

635,436

679,525

1,31 1,96]

1,428,945

1.03.",. 220

2, 101 171

1 387

692,320

716,183

i 108,503

1. 173.001

1.070.0 1 1

2.553,905

1888

723,957

695,955

1. 1 10.012

1.7.74.700

1.141.30.-,

2 716,131

1889.

745,132

7 12.101

1. 187,533

1.77.0. 71 I

1.21 1,442

2,968,156

1890

789,310

85 7

1,647,139

1.732.331

1,282,472

3,014.803

1891 . .

844,916

884,481

59,397

1. SI 7. 0 13

1 203,170

3.021.113

1892. . .

827,403

1,030,278

857,681

L.748 s;

1,105,749

2.854.024

1893.

SCO. 10 1

847,665

1,714,066

1,685

1,062,161

2,745,043

1894

6£

S02.1 !1

1,547,136

1,706,02

1.07.1.10 1

2,757 21 1

1895.

7-31,971

807,53

1,539,508

1.737.27D

1,100 15

2 837,723

1896.

779,725

882,607

1,662,332

1,876,402

1,168.669

3,045,071

1897

764,730

1.1 >.-.o. 001

1. SI 7..72 1

1,903,165

1.130 830

3,042.995

1898

616,050

1,231,482

17.532

1,994,730

L, 135,64 !

3,130,373

1899

697,149

1.227.02:!

1,924,172

2,043,897

; 287.151

3,331.048

1900. .

849,941

1,394,483

2,244,4 !

2.23S.07!

1.417,086

3.655,157

1001 .

823,172

1.1^.

1,310,937

2,210,112

'.302.720

3,572,841

1902

903,321

1,381,719

2,285 040

-1 L28

1,379,283

3.030.411

1903

1,025,719

1,420,1 12

2, 1 15 801

01 985

Ml. -,.170

3.717.101

1904

991 ,08 !

1.460,827

2 151,915

2.330.103

i. 1034 10

.. 802.903

1905

1,1 17,513

1,51 ;

2.030.07.-,

2,346,821

1,605,052

3,951,873

L906

1 ,226.562

1,743,865

70 127

1 544.138

1.S27.737

1,371,875

1907.

1,434 1

1,880,85]

3,31

,69

2,073.300

4,768,688

1908

1,194 34

i ,860,773

3,055,1 15

2, 198,1 I"

1. S37,. 170

1,333.295

1909

I 31 1,920

1,663,011

.'.07 1.03 1

!,59

i ,840,415

4.430.012

1910

i 744,985

01,932

2,79*

2,094,467

1,890.252

Kill

1.527.22C

I 049.320

. 6,546

809,909

2,209,972

5.019 881

1912

1,65

2.204

i7,587

.; 080

2. 371. U7.;

5, 15 1 ,095

1913

I.M

! 165,884

1.278

3. 207. sim

2,556, 106

5,763,906

1914

i ,89

2 364,579

2,925 550

2.000.10.-,

5,021.655

1915.

1 ,674,170

s 589

12.759

3,674.009

1,87 1 ,886

5,545 895

1916

' " 13

'Figures for the United Stati - are for the fiscal years ended June 30; for the other

itrios they are for the calendar years.
i ri aeral imports.

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OF THE CNITED

STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE PROM

1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR

( lermany 3

Fra : i

Year

Total ex-

Total ex-

Imports

Exports

ports and
imports

Imports

Exports

ports and
imports

1,000 dollars

1,000 dollars

1,000 dollars

1.000 dollar

1,000 dollar;

.000 dollars

1870

553,400

540.800

1,094,200

1871

688.400

7)7)1 400

1. 242^800

1S72

775,128

551,618

1,316,746

689.100

720.000

1.4 15! 100

1873

893,176

542,085

1,435,261

686.101!

730.900

1.417.000

1874

856,662

557.491

1,414,153

677,000

714,300

1,391.300

1875. . . .

839.590

593.052

1,432.042

682,600

747.400

1,430,000

1S76. . . .

903. '177

605.886

1.509,863

709.800

690,100

1,459.900

1877

896.072

656,982

1,553

708,300

663,200

1.371.500

1878

834. 487

686.671

1,521,158

806,000

013.700

1,419.700

1879

890. 618

660.352

1.7)7)6.970

886,900

623,600

1.7,10.500

1880. . . .

670.'.i!7.

688,500

1,359,445

971.400

669.300

1.040.700

1881. . .

705,013

707.07s

1,412,991

938,600

687,400

1.026.000

1 SSL' ...

744.7).")-'

758,817

1,503,369

930,600

689,900

i. 020. .500

1883

776.476

778,257

1,554,733

.127.200

666.200

i ,593,400

1884

775,904

762.432

1,538

838,300

023.900

102.200

1885. . . .

699,067

680.551

1,379,618

789,100

596,000

1,385,100

1886

684.765

710,186

1,394,951

s 12.200

627,000

1,439,200

1887. . . .

740.511

745 896

1,486,407

777.000

'120.600

1,403.600

1888. . . .

778,434

762,444

1,540,878

792,700

020.600

1.419,300

1889. . .

949,520

753.222

1,702,742

833,200

714,900

1.548.100

1890. . . .

990,023

791.717

1,781,740

856,300

724.400

1,580,700

1891

987,890

755.771

1.743.661

920.200

689.000

1,609,200

L892.

956.417,

703.07 s

1.659.49 5

si is. 300

067.0OO

1.470.20O

1893. . . .

942.894

737). 886

1,678

713.800

024.600

1.30S.400

1894

937.304

704,826

1,642,130

743.100

594,000

1,337,100

1895. . .

980.710

789,660

1.770.37'.)

717,900

051.10!)

1,369.000

189G. . . .

1.025,105

838,981

1,864,086

7:53.120

050.400

1,389,526

1897. . . .

1.114.006

865.124

1.979,130

763. 50s

001.407)

1,467,913

1898. . . .

1.209.194

894.063

2,103.257

863.103

077.604

1,540.797

1899

1,304. '.177

1,001,278

2.300.27)7

872,032

801.459

1,673,491

1900. . . .

1,372,216

1,097.50'.)

2,469,727,

906,675

7! 12. 07o

1,699,654

1901

1,290.254

1,054,685

2,344,939

843,256

774,498

1.017 77,!

1902

1,340,178

1,113.313

2,453,491

848,046

820,671

1.O0S.717

1903

1,428,640

1,193,483

2,622,123

926,632

820,685

1.747.317

1904

1,512.328

1,243.029

2. 77>7.. 37,7

868.940

859,034

1.727,980

1905

1,696,660

1.364.131

3.060,791

922 329

039,305

1. S01. 634

1906

1,907.210

1.713.41'.!

3,452,659

1.0SO\059

1.016,240

2,102,299

1907

2,081,066

1,629,163

3,710.22'.*

1,201,031

1,080,047

2 281,078

1908

1.824,037

1.522,860

3,346,897

1,088,619

974,791

2,063,410

1909. . . .

2.027.790

1,568,954

3,596,744

1.207). 500

1,103.584

1.084

1910

2.126,322

1.778.969

3,905,291

1,384.453

1,203.12!

2, 581 .577

1911

2.309.947

1,929,243

1.239.190

1,556,705

1,172.834

2,729

1912. . .

2,544.637

2. 13 1.7 is

4.676,355

1,588 553

1.207, 52

2.884,081

1913.

2,563.331

2.1O2.907

4,966,298

1.642.117

1,326

2,969,067

1914

1.235.019

930 68 ,

2,175,304

1915

1916

Special trade.

234

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

The decreasing relative impor-
tance of raw materials in our ex
ports is shown in the following ta
bles, the second of which sets forth
in some detail the recent develop-
ment :

is temporary and what part of it
maj be retained if we determine
to retain it and determine to give
our best efforts to retaining it. In
a table given below it will lie seen
that our exports to certain of the

AVERAGE ANNUAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES WO THE
PROPORTION OF RAW AND MAXIFACTIRED PRODUCTS, 1870 To 1914

Total ValTie

Foodstuffs

Raw Materials

Manufactures

Period

Value

Per Ceni

of Total

Value

Per Cent
of Total

Value

Per Cent
of Total

1870-1879.

1SSII INS!)

1890-1899.
1900-1909.
1910-1914.

sr,:«), 155,600
748,011,563
953,635,567

1,555,067,656
2,130,428,647

$208,959,362
335,463,721
419,604,241
499,351.477
421,413,854

39. n

44.85
44.00
32. 11
19.78

$211,01(1, r.iil
259,012,052
286,653,035
460,922,051
705,287,325

.'ill Ml

::i 63
30.06
."J 64
33.11

$170,863,847
150,055,277
241.2LM.39S
585,713,271
995,831,058

20.35
20.06
25 29
37.66
46.74

DOMESTIC EXPORTS PROM THE UNITED STAPES. CLASSIFIED BY GRE-VT

GROUPS ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE

DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916

< treal Groups

Crude materials for use in manu-
facturing

Foodstuffs in crude condition and
food animals

Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu-
factured

Manufactures for further use in
manufacturing

Manufactures ready for consump-
tion

Miscellaneous

Total "

Value

S702.716.1O0

137,495,121

293, 2 is. 336

374,224,210

724,908,000
7,122,249

S2.32M.6SI. 025

Per Cent

34 03

5.90

12.59

16.06

31.11

31

Kill 00

Value

S536.189.752
380.799.902
596,071.882
662,549,838

1,996,367,492

kid. us, '.his

$4,272,397,774

Per Cent

1 2 55

8.91

13.95

15.51

46 73
2.35

I on on

belligereni European countries have
increased enormously since the war
started, and of course much of this
increase can fairly be attributed to
munitions of war and to such sup-
plies as are needed indirectly to

maintain armies in the field. This
includes explosives, shells, guns, and
a percentage Of the clothes, shoes,
and so on that are now being
shipped abroad In unprecedented
quantities, fortunately for all man-
kind, the demand for such material
cannot go on forever, and when
peace is finally made there will be

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE

a falling off in such shipments,
although not so suddenly perhaps
as has been generally predicted.

The proportion of temporary busi-
ness in our European exports has
been exaggerated, however. It is
erroneous to suppose, for instance.
that the demand for pork and wheat
and corn sold to England and
France at this time is a temporary
one brought about by the war. We
have always sold such supplies in
Europe, and it is not likely that the
per capita consumption of foodstuffs
in a country at war, outside of the
army, is greater than it is in times
of peace. Indeed it is very prob-
able that in a war requiring great
sacrifices on the part of the general
population their per capita consump-
tion may be decreased. It is not
likely that the men actually at the
front consume more food than they
did before the war started. Shoes
and other articles of wearing ap-
parel are of course worn out more
rapidly at the front than in ordi-
nary walks of life, although there
is a strong tendency on the part of
the civilians at home to make such
articles "go further" than ordinarily.

In considering our war time com-
merce with Europe and attempting
to reach some conclusion as to the
changes that will take place when
peace is restored, it is well to bear
in mind the fact that to counter-
balance some of the inevitable losses
there will be a greatly increased
trade for some years with the na-
tions that are now wholly or partly
shut off from our markets. We or-
dinarily do a great business with the
Central Powers, but after the war
we shall be called upon to replenish
depleted stocks in addition. This
applies to Allied countries as well
and perhaps to some of the neu-
trals. There will also be consider-
able reconstruction work in which
the United States is well prepared
to take part.

A table is given here to show what
proportion of our war time exports
is made up of military supplies. Our
exports may be divided into three

groups: (li Exports of actual muni-
tions of war. including cartridges,
loaded projectiles, gunpowder, nitro-
toluol, and other high explosives,
cannon, rifles, etc.; (2i exports of
what may be called secondary army
supplies, including horses and mules,
automobile trucks and aeroplanes,
horseshoes, barbed wire, harness
and saddles, men's boots and shoes,
wool clothing and blankets, and
brass, copper, lead, and zinc in pigs,
bars and other manufactures; (3)
exports of other products that have
no direct relation to the war, in-
cluding breadstuff's, meat and dairy
products, cotton and its manufac-
tures, agricultural and other manu-
factures of iron and steel, leather,
mineral and vegetable oils, tobacco,
lumber and other manufactures of
wood, and other agricultural, min-
ing and factory products that we
sell abroad during normal times.
The total increase in the articles
included in the third class, which
are normally exported in times of
peace, forms practically one-half of
the increase in our total exports.
This fact is clearly brought out in
the detailed figures in tables on
pages 236 and 237.

Our trade with Europe, then, has
recently developed to enormous pro-
portions and there is a certainty
that in some items there will be a
falling off when munitions of war
are no longer required ; but there
is also every reason to believe that
in other lines there will be only a
gradual decrease or no decrease at
all. In some lines, as lumber anil
agricultural implements, an increase
may be expected.

Our exporters and manufacturers
have not failed to realize that an
unprecedented opportunity for in-
creased trade has existed for some
time in countries outside of Europe,
and the result is thai to-day \vc are
doing a larger business with South
America. Asia. Africa and Australia
than ever before. A larger share
of our new business is with these
countries than is generally supposed
and it is a business to which too

236

QUE COUNTR1 RESOURCES

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238

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

much importance can hardly be at-
tached. If the war bad ended in
six months it is probable that many
dealers in South America, for in-
stance, would have returned to their
old European connections, and while
some may eventually return, no mat-
ter how long the war lusts, others
have Indicated that they are satis-
fied with their new American con-
nections and will make no further
changes. Some of our best lines of
goods have now been on trial for
some two years where previously
they were practically unknown and
they have established themselves
permanently. The best American
methods have also come to be under-

sl 1 where previously they were

misunderstood. There are, unfor-
tunately, a few American firms who
have not realized their responsi-
bility and have rushed in to take
undue advantage of the necessities
of foreign concerns. The trade done
by such firms will not be retained
when the war is over, but the bulk
of our new business is not so done
and can be retained if the proper
enterprise is shown.

The surplus capital that has re-
sulted from the sudden increase in
our foreign business will, or should,
prove the most effective factor in
making the new business perma-
nent. Formerly it was rare to have
gold flow steadily to this side of
the Atlantic, but recently it has not

only flowed consistently in this di-
rection, but in quantities that were
never approached before in other
countries. Wisely, much of this new
capital has been invested in the
newer and more undeveloped coun-
tries of the world. This will insure
our having a hand in building rail-
roads, establishing industries, con-
structing lighting and power plants,
and so forth, and this in turn wili
make it certain that our manufac-
turers will share in the business of
furnishing equipment for such un-
dertakings. This is a new departure
for American capital. It is a step
that has long been recognized as
necessary if we are to find good for-
eign markets for our most impor-
tant products. Coming at the time
when our exports to such countries
are growing so rapidly, it can be
taken as an indication that a large
share of our new business is to be
permanent.

A table is given here to show as
simply as possible how our trade to
the various corners of the earth has
increased recently. It will be seen
at once how important a share of our
exports go to regions far removed
from the war zone.

The growth of our trade with
South America has appealed to the
popular imagination more than that
with any other district outside of
Europe, and the assurance that a
much larger business can be built

TOTAL VALUES OF EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO DIFFERENT

PARTS OF THE WORLD DURING THE FISCAL YK \RS ENDED JUNE 30,

1914, 191.5, AND 1916

Country

1914

L915

1916

Relative per

cent of
L916 to 1914

lii ■UiL.-iTi-ut Kiiropc

Other Europe

( ianada

< >ther Norl li America.

Soul h America

Asia

Australia and < Oceania

$1,299,808, 1 is
186,690,281
344.716,981
183,927,981
124,539.909
I 13 125,616
83,568.417
27,901,515

$1,565,980,315
hi:, 154,372
300 686,812

176.3SS.9L5

99.323,957
1 1 1,470,493
77,764,725
28,519,751

S2.646.037.657
353,145.772
166,884 115
266,005,613
180,356,555
278,470,228
99,241,555
43.517,070

203.6

189 l
135 4

lit 6
144.8

24.5 5
lis 7
155.9

Total

$2,364,579,148

$2,768,589,340

$4,333,658,865

INS A

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE

239

up with onr nearest neighbors and
can bo retained has not only con-
centrated the attention of manufac-
turers and exporters on South Amer-
ican markets and the problems
connected with entering them to
advantage, but has. for the first
time in our history, aroused an am-
bition in many young men to learn
the language and customs of the
countries that lie to the south of
us. There are hundreds of young
men now preparing for careers in
foreign trade where formerly there
was one, and South America mor.e
than any other section has been the
lodestone. If this sudden interest
does nothing more than prepare
young Americans for the export
trade it will have been worth while.
The trade with the individual
South American countries in 1016
as compared with 1914, the year
preceding the war, deserves careful
study. This country sold Argentina
$65,903,611 worth of goods in 1016,
whereas in 1014 our total sales
amounted to only $45,170,080. Im-
ports from Argentina increased even
more rapidly, for in 1016 we pur-
chased $112,512,420 worth as com-
pared with $45,123,088 worth in
1014. The imports were as usual
raw materials. Exports to Bolivia
showed onlv a slight gain — from
$1,145,555 to $1.367.801— while our
imports from that country amounted
to $204,004 as compared to practi-
cally nothing before the war. Ex-
ports to Rrazil show an increase
from $20,063,014 to $41,202,277. an
encouraging development that holds
much promise for the future. Our
purchases from Rrazil increased
from $101,320,073 in 1014 to $132,-
663,084 in 1016. Chile bought $17.-
432.392 worth of goods from the
United States in 1014. but in 1016
the amount spent with us had in-
creased to $24.2<S9.052. We in turn
greatly increased our purchases in
Chile, the figures being $25,722,128
in 1914 and no less than $64,154,859
in 1916. Our exports to Colombia
increased from $6,786,153 to $11,-
125,232 and our purchases incrensed

from $16,051,120 to $21,458,029. S:iles
to Ecuador, while not so important
as thev ought to be. increased from
$2,067,750 in 1014 to $3,462,040. and
purchases rose from $3,505,456 to
$5,848,290 in 1016. Paraguay is the
one country with which business.
both import and export, has fallen
off. Our exports to that country
amounted to only $173,101 in 1014,
but in 1016 they had fallen off to a
mere $73,452. Similarly, our im-
ports fell from $64,651 in 1914 to
$53,337 in 1916. Exports to Peru
increased from $7,141,252 to $10,-
173.176 and imports from that coun-
try increased from $12,175,723 to
$24,326,689. Our trade with Uru-
guay has resembled that of Peru
so far as quantity goes, our exports
in 1914 amounting to $5,641,266 and
in 1916 to $10,274,426, whereas our
imports increased from $7,715,144 to
$14,475,478. Figures for Venezuela
are also somewhat similar, our ex-
ports to that countrv increasing
from $5,401,386 in 1914* to $S,999,272
in 1916, and our purchases showing a
jump from $9,763,069 to $14,942,44S.
The foregoing figures are signifi-
cant not only in showing that our
exports to South American countries
have increased in a satisfactory
manner in the last two years, but
also in calling attention to the fact
that these countries are now selling
a greater quantity of goods in this
country. Our purchases consist of
such essential raw materials as cof-
fee, rubber, tin ore, nitrates and
hides, which we need in large quan-
tities. Before the war much of the
rubber, all of the tin. and some of
the hides went to Europe, there to
be manufactured and shipped across
the Atlantic again to the United
States. Probably when the war is
over the European countries will im-
port all the raw materials they need
direct from South America, but it
is very unlikely that they will ever
again supply us extensively with
goods manufactured from South
American materials. This condition
not only makes for greater inde-
pendence on our part, but brings us.

240

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

into much better relation to the
South American countries.

The growth in our export trade
has been more rapid than the
growth in our imports and is a sub-
ject that is much more interesting
to most Americans. It is quite nat-
ural to dwell at greater length upon
what we succeed in selling than
upon what we have to buy. Never-
theless the recent great growth in
our purchases abroad is significant
and deserves the most careful study.
In 15)14 we purchased abroad $1,-

893,925.657 worth of g Is. which is

not far from normal, but in 1916
we spent no less than $2,197,883,510
for foreign products. The table that
follows shows the purchases made
by the United States since 1904, by
continents.

It will be seen that imports have
fallen off from Europe only. It has
been impossible for the manufactur-
ers in the belligerent countries to
concentrate on their foreign trade
as they did before the war; so, in
spite of the fact that we have had
more money to spend than ever be-
fore, our purchases of manufactured
goods from Europe have fallen off.
In many quarters this fact is looked
upon as a favorable one. inasmuch
as it has resulted in a tendency to
rely more on our own industries.
Certainly our American Ingenuity
has had plenty of opportunity of

proving itself. We are now success-
fully manufacturing many lines of
goods that were formerly exclusive-
ly imported.

From other parts of the world,
however, we are making heavier pur-
chases than ever before, but such
purchases, as in the case of South
American countries already men-
tioned, have been very largely raw-
materials, which formerly we im-
ported indirectly in an unmanufac-
tured state through European mid-
dlemen or were manufactured for
us by European manufacturers. This
establishment of direct relations
with the newer and more undevel-
oped countries of the world will be
most helpful, not only in saving
freight charges and in doing out-
own work in our own factories, but
in effecting closer trade relations
with the producing countries. An
idea of the part played by raw ma-
terials and manufactured goods in
our import trade since 1870* may lie
had from the two tables on page 241.
the second table showing in sonic
detail the changes that have taken
place in the last two years.

It will be seen that the recent
trend of our Import trade does nor
threaten American interests. We
are making more and more of the
manufactured goods we need, anil
importing more and more of the
raw materials that formerly were

PURCHASES MADE BY THE UNITED STATES, 1904 1916

Fiscal Years

Ending

June 30—

1001

1905.

KtOti

1907

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912.

1913

I'll I

1915

1916

Imports

Europe

Dollars
198.697.379
540,773,092
633,292,184
7 17.291,253
608,014,147
654,322,918

SOO.270.2NO
768,107.7()0

North
America

I >ollars
198,778.952

227. 22! 1. 1 15

235,353.322

2o:<..r>7<>.:?i!i
238,815,898
253.999,920
306.767.486

South
America

Dollars
120.364,1 L3
150,795 '■oo
140,422,876

Asia and
< Oceania

Dollars Dollars
163,820,151 9, I2i'.. 77i
1S7.:171. 1 12 I 1,343,622
204,865,329 12,628," 35

Africa

160,165,537 242,260,820
124,998,590 206,222, 182
163,878.724 224,610,035
196,164,786 230,255.139

105, 196.793 182,623,750 243,724,182
si!i .-,s.wji; 334,072,039 215,089,316 261 ,932,365
S92.H66.3N4 361.943,059 217,734,629 31 1,038,218
895,602,868 127,399.354 222,677,075 329.096,884
61 I 354,645 473,079,796 261.489,563 300,292,655
612.252.70!! 59] ,895 5 13 391 ,562.018 533, Hi7. 155

21,127.466
16,290.675

15.1 OS. 627
1 7. 189,739
27,213,620
22,585.888

Total

Dollars
991,087,371
l.l 17,513,071
1,226,562, 146
1,434.421,425
1,194,341.792
1,311.920.224
1 ,556,947,430
1,527,226,105
1,653,264.934
125,34 I 1 ,813,008.234
19,149,476 1,893,925,657
2 1,953,081 1 ,674.169.740
64.765.7 15 2.197,883.510

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE

241

manufactured for us by other coun-
tries. For the most part the raw
materials imported are such- as we
can not produce at home or can not
produce in sufficient quantities to
meet the demand.

Another development of the last
two years is our transition from a
debtor to a creditor nation. At least
it can safely he said that we are
now a creditor nation so far as cur-
rent accounts go. This has been the
result, of course, of shipping abroad

here at home, but much of it has
been invested in foreign securities,
as already mentioned. Just how
much has been so invested can only
be estimated, but about the middle
of U)l(') the figure was put at nearly
a billion and a half of known in-
vestments, with many other pro-
posed loans under consideration.
The largest loans have been made
to the belligerent countries, but a
steadily increasing amount is going
into the more undeveloped countries

AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES AND THE PROPORTION
OF RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1914

Total Value

Foodstuffs

Raw Materials

Manufactures

Period

Value

Per Cent
of Total

Value

Per Cent
of Total

Value

Per Cent
of Total

1870-1879.
1880-1889.
1890-1899.
1900-1909.
1910-1914.

$512,021,878

680,050,955

757.264.7si

1,087,799,986

1,688,874,472

$1S9, 618,034
224,892,472
261,688,223
266,573.229
397,517,016

37.03
33.07
34 . 56
24.51
23.54

$74,245,895
132,740,135
185,512,723
357,425,263
580,339,002

14.50
19.52
24.50
32.86
34.36

$238,691,827
311,078,907
303,883,186
456,177,165
696,400,401

46.62
45.74
40.01
41.91
41.23

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES, CLASSIFIED BY GREAT GROUPS

ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE, DURING THE

FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916

1914

1916

Great Groups

Value

Per Cent

Value

Per Cent

Crude materials for use in manu-
facturing

Foodstuffs in crude condition and
food animals

Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu-

$632,865,800

247,947,621

227,644,329

319,275,488

449.318,214
16,874,145

33.42
13.09
12.02
16.86

23.72

.89

$944,105,228

251,833,794

309,708.717

359,441,501

315,353,634
17,440,636

42.96
11.46
14.09

Manufactures for further use in

16.35

Manufactures ready for consump-

14.35

.79

Total

$1,893,925,657

100.00

$2,197,883,510

III!) Oil

so much more than we have been
importing, which has enabled us to
establish credit abroad, to buy up

American securities held in Euro-
pean countries, and to import un-
precedented quantities of gold. Much
of this newly acquired capital has
been used for development purposes

for development purposes. The pur-
chase of American securities held
abroad has proceeded rapidly during
the last two years and it is safe to
say that the total amount of paper
so repurchased reaches well over a
billion dollars. Some estimates have
put it as high as two billions.

242

oil; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

More accurate statistics arc to he
had (in the imports (if gold. The net
inward gold movement aggregated
$456,032,344 for the twelve months
ended September 30, 1916. For the
year previous the total was $205.-
440.7.">1, showing that the net inward
movement has doubled within a
year. More gold has heen added to
our store in two years than has ever
been added to the supply of any
nation before in the same length of
time, and despite all pessimistic pre-
dictions it seems only reasonable to
suppose that this vast accumulation
will he a powerful factor in enabling
the country to hold its own in the
world's commerce no matter what
circumstances may arise. It will
enable us to maintain ourselves in
foreign markets on a much better
footing than ever before and will
enable us to meet without embar-
rassment any foreign demands for
gold.

Mention has already been made
of the fact that we have been deal-
ing more directly with some of the
producing countries. A few special
instances will be of interest in this
connection. For a great many years
previous to the war the world's furs
were sold through London and Leip-
sic. Our furs, which are mostly
seal, were sent all the way to
London to be sold, and not until
they had been auctioned off and
dressed and dyed did we see them

again, greatly enhanced in price as
the result of two trips across the
Atlantic, duties, and foreign labor.
Furs trapped in Northwestern Can-
ada likewise were shipped across the
continent, across the Atlantic, and
back again to us. The war gave us
the opportunity of organizing fur
sales in this country, with the as-
sistance of the Government, and we
have learned to dress and dye our

furs quite as well as anybody ever

did it for us. We now buy the fur
skins direct from the countries in
which they are trapped, and very
likely we shall continue to do so
when the war is over.

We are buying more rubber direct

now than we ever did before, and
there seems to be no reason why
we should go back to European mid-
dlemen in the future. One of the
most important developments in the
way of direct buying has been the
purchase of tin ore from Bolivia.
We mine no tin in this country and
have always been content to have
England and Germany get the ore
from the Straits Settlements and
Bolivia and refine it for us. As a
result of the difficulties encountered
in getting tin in this manner under
war time conditions, a company was
organized in this country to buy ore
direct from Bolivia and smelt it in
this country. Fifteen tons of the
refined metal a day are now pro-
duced here, and it is tin of the very
best quality. This direct dealing
with Bolivia can not help stimu-
lating commercial relations between
the two countries. In short, it may
be said that this country will never
in the future be wholly satisfied
with indirect buying arrangements.

Another interesting phase of our
new position in world's trade is the
increasing tendency to substitute
dollar exchange for sterling ex-
change. Perhaps it is premature to
say that the substitution is or is
not going to be permanent, but it
is safe to say that the experiment.
even if merely tentative, has had
the effect of bringing our merchants
into much closer touch with the
merchants of other nations than
ever before. The establishment of
branch hanks in South America is
another important step that has
been taken recently in an effort to
put our dealings with our South
American neighbors on a more satis-
factory basis.

In conclusion it might be said
that the pre-eminent position which
the United States has come to oc-
cupy in the last two years has then
been of inestimable benefit in stimu-
lating the industries of the country,
in giving lis an international point
of view, and in making it possible
to get into closer touch than ever
before with the manufacturers, ex-

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE

243

porters, merchants, importers and

bankers of other countries, and it
is highly desirable that we do not
let slip the advantages we have
gained. It is not desirable, of
course, that we go on exporting
twice as much as we import, for
international trade can not be con-
ducted on any such basis for an in-
definite period, but it will be greatly
to our advantage to remain the first
commercial nation and to retain the
best of the great business so recently
acquired. It can be done if Amer-
ican business men determine that it
must be done, if they realize fully
the importance of foreign trade.
They can not do it if they return to
the indifferent methods that pre-
vailed when the home market was
looked upon as all-sufficient.

The necessity of foreign trade
need not be dwelt on in an article
of this kind. Even the layman has
had the opportunity in the last two
years of seeing what wonders a
thriving foreign business can accom-
plish. The fact that our sales
abroad do not comprise more than
1 to 5 per cent of our sales at home
does not mean that the foreign sales
are of trifling importance, as was
once commonly assumed. The point
is that the sales to outsiders are
large enough to mean the difference
between stagnation and prosperity.
They are. so important that our man-
ufacturers cannot afford to let them
fall off,; and it is my opinion that
they will not allow any but the most
temporary part of our new business
to get away from them.

RACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN WINTER
GARB

MODERN METHODS OF ORE HANDLING IN THE HOLD OF A SHIP

CHAPTER XX.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL
PREPAREDNESS

By Dr. EDWARD EWING PRATT

CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, DEPARTMENT OF

COMMERCE

WE are indebted to the great
European war for the slogan
"Preparedness." The word
was in the dictionary before hostil-
ities began, but it lacked any real
vitality. Americans had always as-
sumed that they were pretty well
prepared for almost any eventuality,
as individuals and as a community.
If we needed to fight we had a pop-
ulation of a hundred million to fall
back on: if we ever came to a pass
where we needed more foreign trade,
we could go out and get it; if we
needed to make tilings that others
had always made for us, all we had
to do was make them. We were
living in a fool's paradise.

We know now that we were not
adequately prepared to do anything
Init drift and muddle along rather
prosperously by virtue of immense
resources, favorable geographical
situation, and a native ingenuity
and resourcefulness which we had
inherited from our pioneer ances-
tors. What we have learned about
the necessity of military prepared-
ness will not lie discussed here. This
article will be concerned with pre-
paredness for the commercial strug-
gle which will come when peace is
declared and with the preparations
we are making and must make to
achieve industrial independence of
the older manufacturing nations of
Europe.

As has been said many times, we
have become the leading commercial
nation of the world. This is not
only true, but is becoming increas-
ingly evident with the passing of
each month. In August and Sep-
tember, 1916, our exports exceeded
half a billion dollars, which is not
only a higher figure than we ever
reached before, but is much larger
than any nation ever achieved be-
fore. Our imports have also grown
rapidly, but the balance of trade in
our favor has attained enormous
proportions and our industrial pros-
perity is so pronounced and so real
that the most carping critics no
longer question it. The question is,
can this great trade and this great
prosperity survive the war?

It is certain that we cannot retain
all of the present trade and it is
not at all certain that we can continue
as prosperous as we have been
throughout 101(1. But it is certain.
I think, that we need not suffer so
serious a disturbance when peace is
declared as has been pictured in some
quarters. We have acquired much
new business that can be retained
if we make the proper efforts to re-
tain it, and as the war goes on our
opportunities for acquiring more
business of that sort increase. We
need a thorough appreciation of the
necessity of keeping our hold on
as much of our newly acquired trade

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

246

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

as possible when the war is over.

We "ii this side of the Atlantic
are under the necessity of holding
our own in foreign markets if we
an- to avoid difficulties when the
war orders cease, and it is well t"
bear in mind that the belligerent
nations will he under the necessity
of winning back their old markets
if they are to meet the obligations
they have incurred in the war. It
will he a hitter fight, with no quarter
asked and no quarter given. Our
competitors will not only try to oust
us from our foreign markets, but
undoubtedly will carry the fight
right into our home markets.

In planning to meet this struggle
we must consider conditions that
w ill arise immediately upon the ces-
sation of hostilities and also the
more permanent conditions resulting
from the war. A number of our
important industries will he disar-
ranged when peace is made. Manu-
facturers of munitions and other
supplies needed by the armies are

well aware of this fact, hut there
are two classes of manufacturers
who are not facing the facts. One
class is manufacturing the materials
that go into the munitions and the
other is turning out goods that arc
not munitions, but which are re-
quired for military purposes. Such
manufacturers should determine
just how much their business has
been stimulated by the war. and
they should carefully charge enlarge-
ments of plant and equipment
against present profits. It will he
necessary also to keep in mind the
fact that soon after peace is made
there will be decided changes in the
trade routes of the world. There
will be important readjustments in
the principal markets. It will be
an important matter for us to have
a large influence in determining
these changes.

The permanent effects of the war
are of equal importance to us. The
European nations will he compelled
to seek foreign markets as they

THE CZAR OF RUSSIA AND MILITARY OFFICERS WITH AMERICAN BUILT RED
CROSS AMBULANCE IN THE FOREGROUND

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS

241

never sought them before. But let us
consider carefully under what condi-
tions they will be obliged to seek
them. Will they be as formidable
after the war as they were before?
There has been a wide difference of
opinion among economists as to how
the cost of production in Europe
after the war will compare with
what it was before the war. but
the longer the war continues the bet-
ter agreed are the authorities that
costs as a whole will be higher. There
has been a tremendous loss of men,
of labor power. Millions have been
killed and other millions incapaci-
tated. In almost all the belligerent
countries there has been a rapid and
steady diminution of capital. It has
been used up in destruction instead
of production. Taxes are certain
to be excessive for years to come,
for immense debts have accumulat-
ed. Fiscal affairs will be disorgan-
ized. These facts are given here
to show that the increased cost of
production in our country should not
be considered an insurmountable
handicap in the coming struggle.
The point is that we are confronted
with no insurmountable difficulties.
There is no circumstance which
definitely debars us from holding
our own when the test comes.

The problems in foreign trade
which we must work out are dif-
ficult ones, however, and deserve our
most careful attention, for the sta-
bility of our prosperity will depend
almost entirely upon our success in
such trade. It was our foreign
trade which was interrupted when
the war broke out, and it was this
interruption which threatened the
most serious economic consequences.
The war taught us that our domes-
tic prosperity is most vitally con-
cerned with the prosperity of our
foreign trade, and it is for success
in this foreign trade that we must
carefully plan. Let us consider a
number of important factors that
will have a bearing upon our success
in such trade.
First of all comes the question

of men properly prepared to carry
on our business with and in foreign
countries. We have never had an
adequate supply of such men. The
young American has never seriously
considered preparing himself for
such work. Other fields have ap-
peared more attractive to him.
Where we have had one capable
man for such work the English and
Germans have had dozens or per-
haps hundreds. We must set about
painting the advantages of the for-
eign field in their proper colors and
we must at once concern ourselves
with training men in a practical,
efficient manner. We must have
men who know business, who know
their own particular business, who
know foreign languages, who know
how to sell goods, and, above all,
men who can go into foreign mar-
kets with a sympathetic point of
view. For the foreign field we need
men who are diplomats as well as
drummers.

We must also pay more attention
to financing foreign trade. We must
familiarize ourselves not only with
the extension of credits, the estab-
lishment of branch banks, the dis-
counting of paper, but with the
whole mechanism of foreign ex-
change and the investment of Ameri-
can capital in foreign countries. Of
such things most of us have known
very little. We must be willing and
able to provide funds for the con-
struction of public utilities, factor-
ies, mining plants, warehouses, and
other public improvements.

The establishment of a convention-
al tariff system 's another factor
that will be necessary in our cam-
paign for foreign trade. Many na-
tions are able, by reason of their
tariff systems, not only to prohibit
the sale of or to handicap the im-
portation of commodities from econ-
omically unfriendly nations, but
they are also able to encourage the
exportation of their own commodi-
ties by advantageous bargains with
countries which are economically
friendly. A conventional tariff sys-

248

oTTR COUNTRl AND its RESOURCES

I cm is simply a tariff system with
an international point of view.

It is also important that we pro-
pare to become the market place of
the world for certain staple com-
modities. In the past we have been
contenl to purchase our rubber, tin,
wool, furs and so on through Eng-
land and Germany. It is necessary
that we handle some of these sup-
plies ourselves. We must prepare
the machinery for handling them
economically — the facilities for grad-
ing the articles, for buying and sell-
ing, for settling disputes, and so on.
We have already made some satis-
factory progress in this direction,
and there is no good reason why we
should ever go back to the old way
of buying through European middle-
men.

One of the most important factors
in our campaign will lie our mer-
chanl marine. We are turning out
new tonnage more rapidly now than
any other nation, and we should
continue to do so. Large accessions
to our merchant tleet have resulted
from the Ship Registry Act. We
have beard many opinions to the
effect that our navigation laws are
antiquated and operate to the dis-
advantage of American boats, yet
there is no important difference be-
tween our laws and those of other
important maritime countries, and
there will be fewer differences as
time goes on and certain European
countries have an opportunity to
carry out plans formulated a short
time before the war started.

So much for some of the important
factors we must bear in mind in
making our preparations. Now lei

us consider some of the steps al-
ready taken.

Thanks to the Federal Reserve
Act our financial resources are for
the tirst time in our history mobil-
ized for foreign trade.

To the Federal Trade Commission
we can look for guidance in the mat-
ter of co-operating in foreign trade.
This commission will also see to it
that we are protected from unfair

competition in our own markets on
the part of foreign manufacturers.

A Tariff Commission has been
authorized by Congress. The bene-
fits that will come from a scientific,
non-partisan commission of this sort
are too numerous to mention. In
forming this commission we have
taken one of the most important
steps in the direction of commercial
preparedness.

A Shipping Board has also been
brought into being. For the first
time in our history we now have an
efficient instrument for shaping the
growth and policies of our merchant
marine.

Definite and constructive work in
advancing our trade frontiers is be-
ing done by the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce, of the De-
partment of Commerce. This bur-
eau collects information about for-
eign -Markets for American goods.
The sources are the consuls, the
newly appointed commercial at-
taches, and a corps of traveling
special agents. The office at Wash-
ington is the warehouse, and the
staff there and at the district offices
is engaged in selling the information
for action. Action is the price and
results are the object of our work.
The Bureau is rapidly improving in
efficiency.

Private Corporations have been
organized for financing foreign en-
terprises and large sums of Ameri-
can capital have been made avail-
able for use in countries that form-
erly depended entirely upon Euro-
pean financiers. Nothing will sta-
bilize our newly acquired foreign
trade quite so effectively as the ap-
pearance of American gold.

The lumber manufacturers of the
"West have organized an export
sales company to assist in the sale
of Douglas fir in foreign markets.
This company will undertake the
grading of lumber for export, the
proper seasoning of such lumber, and
an extensive propaganda. It is one
of the most intelligent steps that any
American Industry has taken in this

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS

>49

direction. It should be studied care-
fully by every other industry de-
sirous of taking steps to insure it-
self against disaster when the war
is over.

There is much that remains to he
done before we can look forward
with complete assurance that when
the war is ended we shall he able
to hold the trade we have recently
acquired in the world's markets.
We are still in the midst of busy
preparations for the future, or
should be. We cannot prepare too
carefully, because failure will mean
a depression from which it may take
years to recover.

There is another phase of indus-
trial preparedness quite distinct
from that concerned with hold-
ing our own in foreign markets.
I mean preparedness to produce
here at home all articles that are
essential to our well being. We
must make ourselves independent of
the manufacturers of foreign coun-
tries. That does not mean that we
must sever all relations with foreign
manufacturers, but it does mean that
we should be in a position to get
along without them if need be — if
there should be another great war
between the important manufactur-
ing countries of Europe or if we
should get into such a war ourselves.

In a large measure we are al-
ready independent. If intercourse
with every other nation in the world
were cut off, we could manage to
get along. We could produce suf-
ficient food for everyone and suf-
ficient clothing and fuel. Our iron
and steel industry is practically self-
contained. Building materials we
have in plenty. There would he no
suffering for lack of real necessi-
ties. Inconvenience and annoyance
there would he though, and. if we
were involved in a great war our-
selves, perhaps a serious shortage
of some materials essential for the
manufacture of munitions. We de-
pend upon other countries for many
lines that we would sorely miss.
We know it now, for we have missed

them during the last two years. Are
we going to be in the same position
some time in the future?

We have made considerable pro-
gress in establishing new industries
to supply goods formerly made for
us by Europe and in expanding old
industries to meet the war-time de-
mand for such goods. These new
industries have resulted either be-
cause certain lines of goods former-
ly received from the Central Towers
and Belgium have been cut off alto-
gether or because accustomed sup-
plies from the Allies have been great-
ly reduced by the shortage of ships.
In either case we are learning to
manufacture goods that we previ-
ously purchased abroad and this ex-
perience will undoubtedly, in the
long run, be of more real benefit to
the country than the temporary mu-
nitions business.

Our principal purchases from Ger-
many, in the order of their value,
have been hides and furs, cotton
manufactures, dyes and chemicals,
machinery and other manufactures
of iron and steel, potash, pottery,
silk and silk manufactures, toys,
glace leather and glace-leather
gloves, rubber, paper and paper
manufactures, and salt. Germany
had a practical monopoly of several
of these classes — such as dyes and
certain chemicals, potash and toys.
It seems hardly necessary to say
that the cutting off of these lines
was a serious matter for us. We
soon realized that we must make a
serious effort to manufacture our
own coal-tar products and at least a
certain amount of our own potash.

How well we have succeeded with
the coal-tar dyes is pretty generally
known. Not every user of dyed
goods is wholly satisfied that the
quality of our dyes is yet all that it
should be. but it should he borne
in mind that the demand on the hur-
riedly built plants was enormous
and that in some cases it was in-
evitable that quantity rather than
quality should lie given first con-
sideration. Improvement in quality

'jr,d

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOPRCES

has taken place steadily, however.
and it is not likely that much more
fault will be found in that direction.
We are now producing about half
the ordinary requirement of some
29,000 tons annually and the differ-
ence has been partly made up by
the use of natural dyes. Congress
has accorded protection to the new
industry in the shape of additional
tariff and the Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce has supplied a
detailed census of the dyes we im-
ported in normal times. This census
is aimed to assist manufacturers in
determining how much of each color
is actually needed by the dye users
of the country. Previous to the publi-
cation of this work only our dyestuff
importers had any such knowledge
of the market. One Buffalo manu-
facturer has stated that the census
has saved him a million dollars and
years of wasted effort.

There are a number of other coal-
tar products for which we formerly
depended upon foreign manufactur-
ers, including carbolic acid, aspirin,
acetanilid, photographic developers.
salicylic acid, saccharin, creosote and

benzoic acid. These are all manu-
factured at home now. although not
in the quantity that might be wished.
Prices are very high. Rut we have
demonstrated our ability to manu-
facture them and it is not likely
that we shall allow the experience
to go for naught.

The lack of potash has been a
sore point. The German deposits can
be worked so cheaply that in the
past there has been no incentive
to recover the material from kelp,
alunite or other sources, but when
the German supply was cut off there
began an eager searching of our own
resources. The result has been that
we have made considerable progress
in recovering potash from kelp, alu-
nite, the brine of certain alkaline
lakes, tobacco stems, mica and in the
manufacture of Portland cement.
The supply has been barely sufficient
for industrial use. however, and our
fields have had to do without it.

But our children have not been
obliged to do without toys. Ameri-
can ingenuity stepped in quickly
when the supply of German toys
was cut off and so far as novelty

AGRICULTURAL FAIR AT JOHANNESBURG. SOUTH AFRICA. SHOWING
AMERICAN MOTOR CARS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS

251

goods are concerned we are better
supplied now than ever. Good
progress has also been made in imi-
tating typical German products, and
it is not at all likely that Santa
Glaus will ever again import heavily
from abroad to fill our stockings.
As a matter of fact we are doing
some foreign business in this line
ourselves and satisfactory relations
have already been established with
dealers in England, Australia and
South America.

We are now importing tin ore
from Bolivia and doing our own
smelting. Formerly we depended
almost entirely upon Englan d
and Germany for our refined tin.
These countries bought their sup-
plies of ore and partly refined
tin from the Straits Settlements
and Bolivia and did the work
of completing the refiniug for us.
The war interfered with getting
the supply in this manner and
a firm was organized to import the
ore from Bolivia and smelt it in
this country. The new plant is now
turning out fifteen tons of the finest
tin a day. We need about 45,000
tons a year.

An attempt is being made to es-
tablish an all-American linen in-
dustry. For years before the war
started the Tinted States was the
greatest consumer of linen goods in
the world and practically all such
goods were purchased abroad. The
war has greatly interfered with
these imports, for Russia is by far
the greatest producer of the raw
flax fiber required by the Irish, Bel-
gian and French mills. In this coun-
try flax has been raised almost en-
tirely for the seed, which is used
to manufacture linseed oil, and the
Department of Agriculture has esti-
mated that in 1915 there were some
3,000,000 acres devoted to this crop.
Of this great total only 2,000 acres
were planted in flax for fiber, the
yield for this purpose being esti-
mated at only 4.000,000 pounds. It
should be kept in mind that flax
growing for seed and flax growing

for fiber are two separate and dis-
tinct industries. To some extent
flax is grown for both seed and
fiber, but the farmer must decide
which is to he the main product and
which the by-product, just as the
sheep raiser must decide whether
wool or mutton is to be the main
consideration when he selects the
stock he is to raise. In Russia the
flax grower not only raises the flax
but prepares the fiber for the mills,
and this is a disagreeable and in-
sanitary process and one that de:
pends upon very cheap labor. The
problem in this country was to find
a satisfactory chemical process of
preparing the fiber that could be
carried on in a factory. Such a
process has apparently been worked
out, for several important concerns
are now buying flax on a large scale
in the West. They are also assist-
ing the farmers in a financial way.
The manufacture of the coarser
goods from this straw is now being
carried on successfully and in time
the high-grade linens will be made
also, in spite of the reputation of
foreign makes. In the past our
foreign linen bill has been some-
where between 25 and 30 million
dollars annually.

The manufacture of certain lines
of cotton goods has expanded in a
surprising manner since the war
started. There has been a marked
increase in the production of fine
count and novelty fabrics and manu-
facturers have demonstrated their
ability in designing and finishing
such goods. Embroidery cotton.
both mercerized and plain finished,
heretofore produced almost exclu-
sively abroad, is being made satis-
factorily by domestic spinners. There
has also been an increase in the
manufacture of brass bobbin yarn
for lace manufacturers. The large
demand for all tine counts, combed,
gassed and mercerized yarns has
forced a considerable increase in
production. Scrubbing, wiping and
allied cloths produced with yarns
spun from cotton waste, and hereto-

OUR mrXTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

fore imported largely from Germany

and Austria, arc qow made in this
country.

The shutting < ►it" of the supply of
full-fashioned hosiery formerly im-
ported from the Chemnitz district in
Germany lias -ready stimulated the
production of such hosiery in this
country, as well as some grades of
fine-gaged seamless hosiery. The
shortage of dyes has been the only
obstacle in the way of completely
meeting the demand for the best
grades of hosiery.

The only large artificial-silk plant
in this country has doubled its ca-
pacity since the war started and
it is said that several other such
plants are to he started.

Several firms that previous to the
war imported loopers and flat bar
knit tin- machines have started the
manufacture of these articles.

Before the war this country de-
pended almost as a matter of course
upon German and Austrian sources
for sugar-beet seed with which to
keep L'tiin.i,' our flourishing young
beet-SUgar industry. Ordinarily the
consumption of such seed in this
country is aboul 135,000 bags, or
approximately 15,000,000 pounds.
and this is almost exactly the
amount of seed we imported in 1913.
It is estimated that the production
of seed in 1916 was 60,000 bags and
that in 1917 we shall have a yield
of sr..(Ml() bags. The present pro
ducers assert that they are going
righl ahead until it is no longer
necessary to depend upon outside
sources.

An American industry with a mil-

li lollar market has come info

existence as a result of Cutting off
the imports of petroleum from Rus-
sia. By the end of 1914 at least a
score of American refiners were ex-
perimenting in the new tield and at
least ten sources of domestic white
oil for medicinal purposes were de-
veloped. These new American prod-
ucts arc quite the equal of the Rus-
sian product and will probably hold
the market permanently.

The war found us unprepared to
manufacture enough lanolin, or re-
lined wool grease, to meet the de-
mand. Ordinarily we import about
12,000,000 pounds of crude wool
grease and 2,500,000 pounds of lan-
olin. The domestic production of
crude grease is about 6,000,000
pounds, hut very little lanolin has
ever been made at home. We have
always used the crude grease in tan-
neries, cordage factories, etc.. ami
left to others the work of prepar-
ing the refined wool fat. so valuable
in salves, ointments and emulsions.
Now we are at work doing our own
refining.

A well-known St. Louis firm is
dressing and dyeing 10,000 sealskins
by a process formerly used only in
England. The plant is being ex-
panded. In the past we sent the
skins to London for dressing and
dyeing, in spite of the fact that we
are the largest producers of seal-
skins in the world and the largest
consumer. The first sale of fully
dressed and dyed sealskins wholly
"made in America" ever held in this
country took place in October, 1916.
We shall never go hack to the old
way of carrying on this business.

Within the last two years there
has been introduced into this coun-
try the chemical porcelain industry,
with the help of the Bureau of
Standards. Only a short time ago
there was not an American manu-
facturer who believed chemical
porcelain could he made from Amer-
ican materials in American factor-
ies. \ow two establishments are
making the best type of modern
chemical porcelain.

In the pas) much of the clay used
in this country in the manufacture
of porcelain came from England,
that for the manufacture of eruei-
bles and other high refractories from
Germany, ami that required for
other line products from France.
Experts in the Department of Com-
merce have pointed out that clays
for all these purposes may lie ob-
tained in the Tinted States and by

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS

proper treatment be made equal and
in many cases superior to the ma-
terial heretofore supplied by Europe.
Many of these clays are found in
the South and are now being used
commercially.

Before the war all naphtha and
gasoline safety lamps were pur-
chased in Europe. Since the war
started some of the foreign patents
have expired and several American
lamps of this type have been placed
on the market. With the help of
the Bureau of Mines there have also
been developed several types of per-
missible electric safety lamps, which
are now in the market in competi-
tion with foreign makes.

The war has had a very stimu-
lating effect on the production of
crude and calcined magnesite in
California. In times past these de-
posits have been used very sparing-
ly, and principally in connection with
the paper industry. In 1913 the
imports amounted to approximately
168,000 tons, while the domestic pro-
duction did not reach 10,000 tons.
The imported material was largely
used in the manufacture of refrac-
tory furnace lining and in the man-
ufacture of paper from wood pulp.
No exact data as to the present out-
put of the American companies are
available, but it is thought that the
domestic production in 1916 was
about equal to the former imports.
Eastern users, however, are urging
grea ter ] (reduction.

There has been a striking increase
in the production of cutlery and
related articles. The old American
preference for imported articles has
kept alive in this country a thriving
business in such articles. Barber
.shears, razors, butcher knives,

cleavers, boning knives, and so on,
are now supplied by American man-
ufacturers in sufficient quantities to
meet the demand. All these articles
needed was a fair trial.

As a result of restriction placed
upon the shipments of asbestos from
Canada, which is the world's chief
source of supply, we are now pay-
ing attention to our own deposits.
In 1915 there was a great increase
in the production of high-grade as-
bestos in Arizona. The lower-grade
asbestos produced in this country
comes mainly from Georgia. De-
posits are now reported from the
Caspar Mountain and other regions
in Wyoming. The Geological Sur-
vey is of the opinion that the pres-
ent output can be greatly increased.

The list could be greatly extended,
but the foregoing should be sufficient
to prove the point that when Ameri-
cans are forced by necessity they
can manufacture practically any
line of goods. We have it in us to
make ourselves industrially inde-
pendent of all other nations in case
of necessity, and we are rapidly
making progress in that direction.

From the evidence in the case
therefore, it appears that it is pos-
sible to make preparations that will
save us from disaster in foreign
trade when our old competitors re-
enter the field. We haven't made
all the necessary preparations at this
writing, but we are doing well and
there is a great deal of vitality in
the movement now where at first
there was only talk. And we are
proving that we never again will
have to depend upon others for im-
portant products. "Preparedness"
has a real and vital meaning for
Americans to-day.

Copyright by B. G. Mitchell

THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING
The Tallest Commercial Structure Ever Erected, Ilome of the "Scientific American."

CHAPTER XXI.
EDUCATION

FROM DATA FURNISHED BY THE IT. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION

I. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS

THERE are nearly 22,500,000
enrolled in educational insti-
tutions in the United States.
Of these, 19,500,000 are in elemen-
tary schools; 1,450,000 in secondary
schools, both public and private, and
216,000 in colleges and universities.
Close to a hundred thousand are in
normal schools preparing to be
teachers ; 07,000 are in law, medical

and other professional schools, and
the remaining million or more are
in various types of educational in-
stitutions. There are 700,000 teach-
ers, of whom 5S0,000 are in public
schools. Annual expenditures for
education aggregate $NOO,000,000.

The following table summarizes
the latest school and college enroll-
ment figures.*

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT IN THE UNITED STATES

Public

Private

Total

Elementary (kindergarten, primary and
grammar)

Secondary (high schools and academies)

Secondary (preparatory departments of
higher institutions)

17,934,982
1,218,804

22,414
87,820
12,289
89,537

1,626,310
154,857

63.324

128.673

54,777

5,749

19,561,292
1,373,661

85,738
216,493

Professional schools

67,066

Normal schools

95,286

Total for the above

19,365,846

2,033,690

21,399,536

610,966

54,798
13,370
4,971
15,253
32,718

3.666
3,100

168,063
489
687

20,000
74,725
60,000

610,966

Business schools

168,063

Reform schools

54,798

Schools for the deaf

13,859

Schools for the blind

4,971

Schools for the feeble-minded

15,940

Government Indian schools

Schools m Alaska supported by the Govern-
ment

32,718
3,666

Other public schools in Alaska

Orphan asylums and other benevolent institu-
tions (estimated)

3,100
20,000

Private kindergartens (individually reported)
Miscellaneous (art, music, etc.) (estimated). .

74,725
60,000

Total for special schools

738,842

323,964

1,062,806

Total for all schools in the United States

20,104,688

2,357,654

22,462,342

*From Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1910.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

256

OUR ColXTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

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r'W i-i

II. ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN
TIIK IMTKI) STATES

Education in the United Stales
has developed as a State rather
than a national matter. All the
States provide elementary educa-
tion, ranging from seven to nine
years, and secondary education of
one or more years, and in practically
every State higher educational op-
portunities are available without
cost for tuition to both sexes. Re-
cently provision has been made in
some States for adequate vocational,
commercial and professional educa-
tion at public expense, but only a
small number of States have as yet
created State systems of vocational
education. Support of schools is
from State and local sources, the
proportion ranging from Massachu-
setts; where 96.8 per cent of the
funds come from local taxation, to
Alabama, where only 24 per cent of
the funds for school purposes come
from local taxation and C....4 per
cent from the State. The Federal
Government early in its history
made important grants of land for
general educational purposes; it
gives financial aid to agricultural
and mechanical colleges and experi-
ment stations in all States, and has
recently begun to support extension
education for agriculture and home
making. It has also maintained.
since ls(!7, a Federal Bureau of Ed-
ucation which serves as a clearing
house of information on education
for the benefit of all the States.
Control of public schools, originally
centered in the local community, has
lately become transferred in large
measure to the county and to the
State, as State aid and responsibil-
ity for education have broadened.
Conditions still vary, however, from
almost complete State domination
in a few States to nearly complete lo-
cal autonomy in others. The National
Government exerts no control over
education in the States other than
that involved in the administration
of certain land grant funds and ap-
propriations for extension educa-
tion. The function of the Federal

EDUCATION

257

Bureau of Education is advisory
rather than administrative.

III. COMPULSORY EDUCATION

Education is compulsory, to a
greater or less degree, in all the
States except one — Mississippi.
Massachusetts adopted a compul-
sory education law in 1852. Ver-
mont followed in 1867; Michigan,
New Hampshire and Washington in
1871 : Connecticut and New Mexico
in 1S712; Nevada in 1873; California,
Kansas. New York, New Jersey,
Maine, Ohio, Wyoming and Wiscon-
sin between 1S74 and 1880. The
more recent adoptions have been in
the Southern States : Alabama,
Florida, South Carolina and Texas
in 1915 and Georgia in 1916. The
laws vary widely in scope and ef-
fectiveness. In some States they are
operative only after acceptance by
counties and local communities; in
others they are effective for only
part of the territory of the State,
large areas being exempted. The
upper age limit for compulsory at-
tendance ranges from age 12 in
Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina
and Virginia, to age 16 in sixteen of
the States, and IS, under certain
conditions, in one (Idaho). The
more usual compulsory period is 8
to 14 years of age, or "until com-
pletion of the eighth grade." The
minimum attendance in any one
year varies from twelve weeks in
Nebraska and Virginia to the "full
school year" in twenty-nine States.
Compulsory education laws have
usually been fortified by State child
labor acts and more recently (1916)
by a Federal child labor law.

IV. ILLITERACY

Illiteracy in the United States is
7.7 per cent as compared with 1
per cent in Great Britain, 4.3 per
cent in France and 0.0.r» per cent in
Germany. According to the census
of 1910 there were five and a half
million illiterates in the United
States over 10 years of age. This
is over a million more than the
combined total population of Mon-

tana, Idaho, Wyoming. Colorado,
New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Ne-
vada and California (4,447,507) ; or
of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts and Rhode Island
(5,438,945) ; or of South Carolina,
Georgia and Florida (4,877,140). A
State made up of these illiterates
would be nearly as large as Illinois
(5,638,591). There were more il-
literates in 1910 than comprised the
entire population of the United
States in 1S00 (5.403.3S3), or the
equivalent of the entire combined
metropolitan population of Phila-
delphia, St. Louis, Boston, Cleve-
land, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Detroit,
and Buffalo. The percentage of il-
literacy in the United States was
lowered between 1890 and 1010 from
13.3 per cent in 1890 to 10.7 per cent
in 1900, and 7.7 per cent in 1010 ; but
the number of illiterates decreased
less than 15 per cent and the num-
ber of foreign born illiterates in-
creased 43 per cent. More than
two-thirds of all illiterates are
country-dwellers ; the rural illiteracy
(10.1 per cent) is nearly twice that
in the cities (5.1 per cent). Exist-
ing illiteracy is therefore ascribed
to foreign immigration and lack of
school facilities in country districts.
The State and national governments
are aiding city evening schools to
eliminate illiteracy among the for-
eign born, and several States — Ken-
tucky, Alabama, North Carolina —
have created State illiteracy commis-
sions to deal with the problem in
rural communities.

V. TYPES OF SCHOOLS

Elementary. — Elementary educa-
tion in the United States has become
almost exclusively a public function.
Of the 1.626.310 pupils reported in
private elementary schools, 1,429,859
are in parish schools of the Catholic
Church. Private kindergartens and
special schools account for a large
part of the remaining number.

Secondary. — The high school is
the most typical American educa-
tional institution. There are 11,674
public high schools, of which 8,440

258

()IK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

have four-year courses. Secondary
education has become more and
more a public function; 89 per cent
of the secondary students arc in
public high schools. It is estimated
by the T'nited States Bureau of Edu-
cation that 25 out of every 100
children who enter school reach the
high school, and that 10 out of every
100 graduate from high school. The
most important recent change in sec-
ondary education is the gradual in-
troduction of the so-called "six-and-

and 46S under private control ; 327
are controlled by religious denomi-
nations: 140 are for men only; S3
for women only: and 340 are coedu-
cational. There are 152,307 men
students and 84,861 women students.*
The number of men students has
tripled and the number of women
students has more than quadrupled
since 1*90.

The following table shows the dis-
tribution of school enrollment in the
elementary and higher grades:

DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL ENROLLMENT ACCORDING TO ESTIMATED

PERCEXTAGKS

( trades

First grade

Second grade

Third gride

Fourth grade

Fifth grade

Sixth grade

Seventh grade

Eighth grade

Total elementary. .

First year high school . .
Second year high school
Third year high school..
Fourth year high school

Total high school . .

Higher institutions

('•rand total

Estimated

Estimated

enrollment

per cent.

in grades

23.50

4,596,904

14 . 79

2.893,115

13.91

2,720.976

13.28

2.597.739

1 1 . 28

2,206,514

9.25

1.809,419

7.63

1.492.527

6.36

1.244.098

100.00

19.561,292

40.14

585,803

26.75

390.389

is st

274,951

14.27

208,256

100.00

1.459,399

378.845

21,399,536

•These an- later figures than appear in the general summary at the beginning
of this chapter.

six" plan of organization, whereby
six years are assigned to elementary
education and six to secondary, the
latter period being divided into
"junior" and "senior" high schools
of three years each. A hundred and
fifty cities had taken steps toward
adopting this form of organization
in V.H.-..

Higher Education. — Of the 563
colleges and universities listed by
the Tinted States Bureau of Edu-
cation, 95 are public Institutions

VI. TEACHERS

Of the 700.152 teachers employed
in the Tinted States. 169.029 are
men and 537,123 women. The num-
ber of teachers nearly doubled in the
thirty years between 1885 and 1915.
Nearly five-sixths of the teachers in
public elementary schools are wo-
men, and of the .">7.'.m><.> public high
school teachers. 32,862 are women.
The colleges and universities have
5.293 women instructors and 19,447
men. The following table summar-

EDUCATION

ur.«.)

izes the number of teachers in vari-
ous types of schools.

VII. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Six States — Massachusetts, New
Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, In-
diana and Wisconsin — have regular-
ly established systems of vocational
or industrial education. Two others

been pointed out that prior to the
outbreak of the European war more
trade workers were being trained :it
public expense in the city of Munich
than in all the larger cities of the
United States combined.

\ail. COST OF EDUCATION

The estimated cost of education

TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES

Teachers in-

Public elementary schools

Public high schools

Private elementary schools (estimated)

Private high schools

Universities and colleges:

Preparatory departments

Collegiate departments

Professional schools:

Theology

Law

Medicine

Dentistry

Pharmacy

Veterinary medicine

Normal schools, public:

Normal department

Other departments

Normal schools, private:

Normal department

Other departments

Commercial and business schools

Schools for defectives and delinquents

Indian and Alaskan schools

Kindergartens and miscellaneous (estimated)

Total

Men

89,615

25,047

8.060

5,820

2,484
16,963

1,516
1,471
6,955
1,532
744
364

1,636
605

136
132
2,019
1,175
1,255
1,500

169,029

Women

432.534

32,862

39,354

8,070

1,493
3,800

2,904
981

223

131

1,731

2,728
1,638
8,674

537,123

Total

522,1 fi
57,909
47,414
13,890

3.977
20,763

1.516
1,471
6.955
1 ,532
744
364

4,540
1,586

359

263

3,750

3,903

2,893

10,174

706,152

— California and Connecticut —
maintain State-aided vocational
schools, and some form of vocational
or industrial education is provided
by eight other States, while in the
States which do not provide State
aid for vocational education separate
municipalities have established sev-
eral types of vocational education at
public expense. The need for indus-
trial training for the youth of the
nation has been urged by organiza-
tions of business men, labor-union
workers, and schoolmen within the
past few years as a measure of
national conservation and prepared-
ness. European nations — especially
Germany — have been ahead of the
United States in this regard. It has

in the United States for 1914, the
latest vear for which statistics are
available, was $794,459,968. The
table over leaf shows the distribu-
tion of this expenditure and the per
capita cost for different types of
schools.

IX. GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION

In the forty-four years. 1871 to
1914, private philanthropy added
$5S4.4lN,0s2 to the available funds
of colleges and other educational in-
stitutions in the United States. The
bulk of these funds goes to colleges
and universities. < >f the $31,357,398
given in 1914. $26,670,017 was for
universities and colleges, $1,558,281
for schools of theology, $203,067 for

_'.;n

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

SCHOOL i:\ROLLMKNT AND ESTIMATED COST

Classification

! Estimated
Enrollment, j per capita
KM 4 cost

Estimated
total cost

Public elementary schools

Public high schools

Privato elementary schools

Private high schools

Other public and private secondary schools
Universities, colleges and professional schools

Normal schools

Commercial and business schools

Reform schools

Schools for the deaf

Schools for the blind

Schools for the feeble-minded

( rovemment Indian schools

Schools in Alaska supported by the Federal

Government

Other public schools in Alaska

Orphan asyhmis. etc

Private kindergartens

Miscellaneous — music, art, etc

Total

17,934,982

1,218,804

1,626,310

154,857

85,738

283,559

95,286

168,063

-.4, 7! IS

13,859

4.971
15.940
32,718

3,600
3,100

20,000
74.725
60,000

S27 . 11

50.54

32 00

94. 10

157 .47

335.57

158 34

50 . 00

157. 92

300 . 80

498 34

555 . 42

116.69

50.13
50 . 00

200 . 00
32.00

100.00

S4S0.105.90S

68,91 1,178

52,041,920

14.572.044

13.501,103

95,153.894

15,087.585

8,403,150

8,653,700

4,168,787

2,477,248

8,753,495

3,817,863

205.773
155,000

4,000.000

2,391 .200
6,000,000

$36.36

$794,459,968

law schools, $1,405,773 for medical
schools. $607,431 for public normal
schools, $116,283 for private normal
schools, ami $706,546 for private sec-
ondary schools. The following table
shows the annual amount of gifts
and bequests to education since 1894 :

GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION,

1894-191 1

1894 $10,855,365

1895 8,240,87fi

1896 11,677,048

1897 10.049.141

1898 lo.9si.209

1899 25.332.792

1900 15.066,561

1901 21.158,400

1902 20,348,739

1903 17.915.075

1904 17. 201.: ::75

1905 21.827,875

r.mi; 23.347,070

1907 28,585,780

1908 19.763,421

1909 21.192.450

1910 24.755.663

1911 27,634,029

1912 30.061,310

1913 29.651,879

1914 31,357 398

X. LIBRARIES

There were over 1S.000 regularly
established libraries io the roiled
states in L913, containing more than
75,000,000 volumes. The number of

volumes is an increase of 20,000,000
since 1908.

READING K00M. CONGRESSIONAL
LIBRARY

EDUCATION

261

Of the 2,S4!) libraries containing
5,000 volumes or over, 1;844 are
classified as "public and society li-
braries," and 1,005 are school and
college libraries. Public and society
libraries have an aggregate of over
fifty million volumes, with seven
million" borrowers' cards in force;
1,446 of these libraries were entire-
ly free to the public-
Libraries reporting from 1,000 to
5,000 volumes numbered 5.453, of
which 2,188 were public and society
libraries, and 3,265 school libraries.
These libraries contained 11,689,942
volumes. Another group of libraries,
comprising those that reported from
300 to 1.000 volumes, increased the
total by 2,961,007 volumes.

Of the 1,844 public and society
libraries with over 5,000 volumes
reported for the entire United
States, more than half were in the
North Atlantic States, and they
contained 24,627.021 volumes out
of the total of fifty millions; and
of the three million volumes added
to library collections for the year
1913, almost one-half were for the
same section. New York State
had 7,842,621 volumes in her 213
libraries; Massachusetts, 7.380,024
in 288 libraries: Pennsylvania, 3,-
728,070; and Illinois, 3,168,765
volumes. Four-fifths of the bor-
rowers' cards in use were in the
North Atlantic and North Central
States.

Plioto Harris & Ewiu;

ENTRANCE HALL, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

CHAPTEK XXII.
THE NEW NAVY

THE NAVAL PROGRAMME OF 1916.

ON August 29, 1916, President
Wilson signed the Naval Ap-
propriation Bill, authorizing a
three-year building programme, of

greater size and importance than
this nation has ever previously con-
templated. To get a perspective on
this bill and what it means, consider

INCREASE OF NAVY SINCE 1903

Year

Appropriation

Amount for
increase navy

Building programme

1906

S102.091.670.27

$33,475,829.00

1 first-class battleship
3 torpedo-boat destroyers
8 submarines

1907

98,958,507.50

23,713,915 00

1 first-class battleship

2 torpedo-boat destroyers

1908

122,063,885 47

30 307 962 00

2 first-class battleships
5 colliers

10 torpedo-boat destroyers

8 submarines

1909

136,935.199.05

38,819,595.00

2 first-class battleships
1 collier

8 destroyers (3 sub-surface)
4 submarines

1910

131.350,854.38

33,770,346.00

2 first-class battleships
2 colliers

6 torpedo-boat destroyers
4 submarines

1911

126,478,338.24

26,005,547.67

2 first-class battleships

2 colliers

1 river gunboat

1 gunboat

2 tugs

4 submarines

1 submarine tender

8 torpedo-boat destroyers

1912

123,225,007.76

20,569,373.48

1 battleship, first line

2 fuel ships
6 destroyers

1 destroyer tender

8 submarines

1 submarine tender

1913

140,800,643.52

35,325,695 . 00

1 battleship
1 transport
1 supply ship

6 destroyers
4 submarines

1914

144,868,716.61

41,091,734.00

3 battleships
6 destroyers
8 (or more) submarines

1915

149,661,864.88

46,853,801.00

2 battleships

6 destroj era

2 seagoing submarines

16 coast-defense submarines

1 oil fuel ship

Copyright by Muiin & Co., Inc.

264

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

the figures on the preceding page
shovi ing the increase during the past

years.

Wilh these figures in mind con-
sider the present bill, which in addi-
tion to provision for enlarged per-
sonnel and material authorizes ten
battleships, six battle cruisers, ten
scout cruisers, fifty destroyers, nine
fleet submarines, fifty-eight coast
submarines, three fuel ships, one re-
pair ship, one transport, one hos-
pital ship, two destroyer tenders,
one submarine tender, two ammuni-
tion ships and two gunboats. .As
soon ns is practicable, which means
in the very near future, four battle-
ships, four scout cruisers, four hat-
tie cruisers, twenty destroyers, thirty
coast submarines, one fuel ship, one
hospital ship, one ammunition ship
and one gunboat are to be begun —
indeed, the bill makes it mandatory
to contract for or begin construc-
tion on lliese within six months.

For months the technical bureaus
of the Navy Department have been
working on the designs of the ves-
sels. In these designs they have in-
corporated military characteristics
which are the result of the lessons
learned from naval operations in the
war and their application to the re-
quirements of the Navy. The de-
partment advertised for bids for the
construction of four battleships, four
scout cruisers, twenty destroyers
and thirty submarines of two dis
tinct types the day the bill was
affirmed and at the same time di-
rected the navy yards at Philadel-
phia, Boston and Charleston to pro
ceed with the construction of the
hospital ship, tin' fuel ship and the
gunboat, respect ively.

The battleships, known for the
iirevent .-is Nos. 45 to 48, inclusive,
will be slightly larger than their
predecessors, the "Tennessee" and
"California." Their chief charac-
teristics are: Displacement, 32,600
tons; sliced. 21 knots; battery, eight
16 inch guns, eighteen 5-inch guns,
four 3-incb antiaircraft guns; coin
plement, 1,022, They will have the

large cruising radius which cbarac

terizes all recent United States bat-
tleships. Their armor and under-
water protection will be unusually
complete.

The scout cruisers, known as Nos.
4 to 7, inclusive, will be the largest
and fastest vessels of this class ever
laid down for any navy. The chief
characteristics are: Displacement,
7.100 tons ; speed. 35 knots ; length,
550 feet ; beam, 55 feet : armament,
eight 6-inch guns, four torpedo tubes
and two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns ;
complement. 330. Their high-pow-
ered machinery installations will be
protected by light but etlicient ver-
tical and horizontal armor. A new
feature never before incorporated in
any ship of a powerful military type
will be the equipment for carrying,
launching and operating four of the
largest size hydro-aeroplanes.

The torpedo boat destroyers,
known as destroyers Nos. 75 to 94,
inclusive, will carry a heavy battery
and will have an unusually large
cruising radius. They represent a
small increase in displacement over
the last class laid down, but will
deliver an increased speed of about
live knots. Their chief characteris-
tics will be: Displacement, 1,185
tons; speed. 35 knots; battery, four
4-inch guns, four triple torpedo
tubes, two anti-aircraft guns ; com-
plement. !>">. They will attain their
rated speed on full designed dis-
placement, and not on a very much
lesser displacement, which can only
be attained by the stripping of many
essentials, as in a number of foreign
boats of this class, for which very
high speeds are claimed.

Of the coast defense submarines,
twenty-seven will be of the usual
type known as Nos. 7S to 104, in-
clusive. The remaining three. Nos.
105, 106 and 107. will be a new type
representing ;i marked increase in
size over the usual coast-defense
submarine and a decrease in size
from the very large fleet submarine.
Bach of those three vessels will rep-
resent different ideas in their de-
tailed designs, and the Navy hopes,
in their development, to arrive at a

2GG

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

size of vessel which will be sutii-
ciently large to perforin nearly all
the duties required of a submarine,
but at the same' time will be suffi-
ciently small to enable it to be built
quickly in large numbers.

The hospital ship will be the first
built especially for this purpose for
the Navy, those now in use being
converted merchant vessels. The
design has been worked out by the
technical bureaus of the department
in constant consultation with the
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery,
with the result that it will embody
every feature of the most up-to-date
hospital on shore. It will have ac-
commodations for 500 patients. Its
chief characteristics and dimensions
are : Displacement, 9.S00 tons ;
length. 460 feet; breadth. 60 feet
10% inches ; draft. 19 feet 6 inches ;
speed, 16 knots. As this vessel will
be, under the terms of the Geneva
Convention, immune from capture or
attack in time of war, it will not, in
accordance with the terms of that
convention, carry an armament of
any kind for offense or defense, and
its design includes no military fea-
tures of any sort.

The fuel ship, known as fuel ship
No. 16. will be a large oil tanker, of
ordinary commercial type, except
that its design will meet the re-
quirements for a vessel which must
accompany the battle fleet and be
prepared to supply fuel oil to ves-
sels of all sizes under adverse con-
ditions of wind and sea. Its chief
dimensions and characteristics are:
Displacement, 14.r>o<> tons; length,
1") feet; beam. 56 feet; draft. 26
feet I inches (about); total dead
weighl carrying capacity, 0,600 tons;
speed. 1 ( knots.

The gunboat, known as gunboat
No. 21, will be a vessel designed espe-
cially for long-continued service in
tropica] waters. Its chief charac-
teristics win be : I dsplacement, i.."»7r»
tons; length, -11 feet 2 inches;
breadth. II feet 1' " :, inches; draft,
11 feet 1 inches; armament, three
I men guns, two 1-pounder guns,
four 30-caliber machine guns, two

3-inch field guns, two 3-pounder
guns; speed, V2 knots; complement,
149.

The only designs of the current
programme not yet completed are
those for the battle cruiser and the
ammunition ship. Plans and speci-
fications for the battle cruisers will
be completed and issued to bidders
about October 1, 1916, and for the
ammunition ship November 1, 1916.
This will permit contracts to be
placed in advance of the termina-
tion of the six months i>eriod named
in the Appropriation Bill.

VESSELS IN THE NAVY

According to the official reports
there were upon the Navy list 399
vessels June 30, 1915, listed as fol-
lows : Battleships, 41 ; submarines,
57 ; fuel ships, 24 ; tugs, 4S ; yachts,
16 : cruisers, 24 ; gunboats, 31 ; de-
stroyers, 69; torpedo boats, 20;
transports, 6; tenders, 9; monitors,
9; special types, S; supply ships, 5;
hospital ships, 2; armored cruisers,
10, and ships of all kinds in au un-
serviceable condition, 20. In addi-
tion to this list of ships there are
authorized by the Naval Act of

Copyright American Press Association
SUBMARINE "D-l"

268

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES

March 3, 1915, battleships Nos. 13
and 44. destroyers Nos. C.!> to 84,
inclusive, and submarines Nos. 60 to
77. inclusive. Appropriations for
the beginning of the construction of
these vessels were made available
July 1, 1915.

It is expected thai on July 1. T.»17.
there will he in active commission
I he following vessels :

Battleships 22

Armored cruisers ■>

Cruisers U

Destroyers 52

Gunboats rr;

Submarines ",i;

Destroyer tenders 4

Submarine tenders •">

Tra asports -

Repair ships -

Pleel tugs G

I [ospital sliip 1

Fleet colliers (manned by naval

crews i 4

Mining ships ~

Supply ships '■'•

Ammunition ship 1

Ami ill reserve with 40 per cent
complements :

Battleships over 15 years old 17

Armored cruisers -r>

Cruisers 11

Destroyers IG

old torpedo boats 10

Destroyer tender ("Dixie," 104).... 1

Submarine tender ("Iris," 86) 1

Supply ship (100) 1

Transport ( 100) 1

NAVY OF THE FUTURE

In its 1915 departmental report
the Navy Department lists those
ships Of the present licet, afloat and
building, which will be serviceable
in 1922. To this list must now be
added the authorized ships in the
most recent Navy bill, in order to
gain an idea of what our present
and projected Navy will amount to
when the present stupendous pro-
gramme is completed. Of course,
the present plans arc to complete
the programme prior to 1922, and
unquestionably further additions
Will be made to the Navy in future

Congresses; bul the following ''*'•

which is compiled from the Navy

i 'epartmehl ffjjtires pins those of the
,iew hill, should Indicate the ap-
proximate Strength dl the Navy In

usable, fightable ships at a date of

approximately 1920 to 1922, as far as
present knowledge can project it:

Sllirs OF THE FLEET SERVICEABLE IX

1920-1922

Dreadnoughts, first line -7

Pre-dreadnoughts, second line 13

Superannuated pre-diead-noughl .

third line 0

Battle cruisers 6

Scents 31

Destroyers 108

Fleet submarines 1-

Coast submarines 120

Find ships 16

Repa Ir ships '5

Supply ships 4

Transports j>

Hospital ships ~

Mine ships 3

OesTrover tenders 4

Fleet submarine tenders li

Ammunition ships 2

Harbor defense monitors |>

Harbor defense battleships '\

Gunboats -,;

NAVY YAKIis. STATIONS. POSSESSIONS

To the average man the Navy con-
sists of the vessels which float in
the water and such property as may
he upon them. To the naval man.
however, the property ashore neces-
sary to maintain the ships at sea is
every whit as important as the ves-
sels themselves, and. as will he seen
in a moment, is no inconspicuous
part of the expenditures necessary
to make or maintain the Navy.

The United states possesses eleven
navy yards in the United states.
located at Portsmouth, Boston, New
fork, Philadelphia. Washington,
Norfolk. .Mare Island. Puget Sound.
Charleston. Pensacola and New Or-
leans. Across the water it has navy
yards in Hawaii. Cavite and Olon-
gapo. It possesses naval stations at
Port Royal and Key West, and
abroad at Guantanamo, San Juan.
Guam and Tutuila. It possesses
training stations at Newport. San
Francisco ami the Great Fakes;
Coaling stations at Frenchman's
Fay and Melville, and in addition
has property at Sitka. Alaska: New
London; Conn.: Yokohama. Japan;
the Naval Academy ai Annapolis.
the naval proving ground at Indian
Head, a naval hospital at Fas

THE NEW NAVY

289

Animas, a naval base at Culebra and
a torpedo station at Newport, R. 1.
The investment in these naval estab-
lishments totals $196,050,020 since
the beginning of the modern idea of
the Navy in 1800, when the Ports-
mouth, Boston, Washington and
Norfolk navy yards were first estab-
lished.

COST OF NAVY

The total cost of all the ships
upon the Navy list to the date men-
tioned, and excluding the new work
authorized in the Naval Act of
March 3, 1015, or the ships author-
ized in the tremendous 1916 bill, is
$450,686,551.32.

It must not, however, be supposed
that adding together the cost of bat-
tleships and the cost of naval estab-
lishments gives any idea of the cost
of the entire Navy since it was first
begun. The total expenditures for
the Navy from 1701 to 1015, inclu-
sive, totals the unthinkable sum of

$3,214,339,051.10. This, of course,
includes ships, establishments, pay,
materials and all expenses in con-
nection with the Navy Department.

HOW NAVY APPROPRIATIONS ARE SPENT

The Bureau of Supplies and Ac-
counts of the United States Navy
requires a closely printed statistical
report of 204 pages to summarize
the financial operations of the Navy.
Nothing, therefore, but the most
comprehensive and inclusive statis-
tics can be given in the short space
here available. The table on the
next page will be found interesting
as showing the principal items of
expenditures in connection with the
Navy.

New expenditures authorized for
the Navy include $11,000,000 for an
armor plant and $1,500,000 for an
experimental and testing laboratory.

ENLISTED PERSONNEL

Having a certain number of fight-
ing ships and the required naval

BLUEJACKETS, NAVAL TRAINING STATION, NEWPORT, R. I.

270 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

PRINCIPAL ITEMS

Amount appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year 1913 $145,616,241.90

Total expenditures during 1915 142,959,092.11

Expenditures for maintaining ships in commission:

Operation $40,890,S93.90

Repairs to ships 4,931,279.89

( lhanges 3,071,837.55

Repairs to equipage 430,757.34

Total $55,324,768.68

Expenditures lor construction of vessels:

Battleships $20,029,890.37

Gunboats and fuel ships 1,913,950.53

Destroyers 5,475,285.52

Submarines 3,636,416.40

Tenders and tugs 935,121.34

Total (at navy yards, $4,540,152.65; under contract, $27,450,-

511.571 $31,990,664.22

Expenditures for pay and allowances of officers and men :

Navy : $41,185,445.10

Marine Corps 3,920,503.99

Total $45,106,009.09

Cost of subsisting the enlisted men of the Navy and Marines afloat. $5,897,181.54

Average cost of subsisting one man for one day .36

Cost of maintenance of navy yards 10, 275,490.03

Cost of all work done at industrial yards:

Labor $17,843,707.50

Material 14,958,449.00

Indirect expense 4,277,083.91

Total $37,079,300.47

Value of materials received into store (including ordnance material) . $112,118,204.44
Value of materials issued from store (including ordnance material.. 105,482,564.30

Property investment of naval establishment :

Ships $459,686,551.32

Stations 206,635,104.59

Stores 192,070,228.07

Total $858,391,884.58

Expenditures for naval militia $905,220.07

Present value of clothing and small-stores fund :

Stock $3,587,075.04

Money 1,517,347.50

Total $5,104,422.54

stations, buses ami navy yards to propriations and provision for this

keep them in condition, a navy increase.

would nevertheless he helpless were The total enlisted force in the

it not for its personnel, regarded by United states Navy was. on June

Navy nun as equally Important with 30, 1915, 52,561 men. of which 47,505

material ami equipment, ami gener- were native born ami 5,056 were for-

ally all too much disregarded by the eigll horn. Of these. 48-.908 were

appropriating power, unfortunately white, the balance being negro, Chi-

a non-technical body of men. Never- neso. Japanese, Filipino. Samoan,

theless. the last ( Congress, in its huge Hawaiian. American Indian and

building programme, look cognizance Porto Rican. Fifteen States of the

of the fad thai more men and offi- United states furnish 65 per cent of

cers were necessary and made ap- the enlisted force. New York fur-

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

nishes the largesl number of native
born American seamen in the Amer-
ican Navy. 6,719, ami Alaska the
smallest number with <">.
Contrary to the general opinion

the United States Navy dues not

have difficulty in obtaining men for
enlistment. Its trouble comes in the
high standard which makes the ma-
jority of applications result in re-
jections. For instance, during the
year 1915 there were 102,561 appli-
cations for enlistment. Of these
only 17.704 were enlisted ami 6,29]
of this number were re-enlistments.
Over 61,000 of the rejections were
on account of disability and 17,000
for other causes.

In order to supply men qualified
for certain ratings in the Navy, the
following schools are maintained:

Electric schools at New York and
.Mare Island.

Machinists' school at Charleston,
S. C.

Torpedo school at Newport, R. I.

Coppersmith school at Philadel-
phia.

Fuel oil school at Philadelphia.

Artificer school at Norfolk.

Xeoman schools al Newport and
San Francisco.

Commissary schools at Newport
and San Francisco.

Hospital attendant schools at
Newport and San Francisco.

Musician schools at Norfolk and
San Francisco.

Mess attendant school at Norfolk.

During the last fiscal veal- 12,27s
men were pursuing courses at these
various schools. Of these. 1,302
completed their course and were de-
tailed to active duty.

A new class of enlisted men at
the Pensacola Aviation School is
formed every three months. Some
of these men arc taught and exer-
cised in the principles of Sight, and
all are trained in the mechanics of
aviation.

On January 1 a school for the

DISTRIBUTION OF ENLISTED MEN OCTOBER 1. 1915

Vessels afloat (Including 305 insular force) 41,593

Four training stations, including those under instruction, Instructors

and necessary details 4,494

Fifteen trade schools, including these under instruction, instructors

.-in. I necessary details 1,376

Total 5,870

Sixteen hospitals :

Hospital attendants 398

Patients 1479

Total i-" '

Recruiting s tations :

Thirty-five main stations; eighty-three substations *o<

Radio stations •;.l';

Aeronautic station g\-'\

Vessels under construction -*•■

.Shore duty at navv yard, naval stations and special duty:

Special duty •, 1J0

Seamen branch, yeomen, artificers, hospital corps, messmen ami

bandsmen '1'^

insular force 1£>d „,„

Total B"

Not available : 1Q

Insane asylums £«

Prisoners i.i<'->

Traveling, ieave, unavailable 300

Total 1'4*"^

Grand total 52'636

Insular force (included in above table) : j-g

Cavite 177

< Hongapo .<s

!;";"", :::::::: <;r>

I nluila

Total 458

274

OT'Ii COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

care and handling of gasoline en-
gines was added to the School for
Machinists' Mates at Charleston.
It embraces a three months' course,

in which the men learn to handle
motor boats and vessels which use
this type of small engine.

The radio courses at the Electric
Schools at New York and Mare
Island have been extended to in-
clude, besides the Continental Morse
Code, the American Morse Code, so
thai all the men who qualify at
these schools may be competent to
talk to any commercial shore sta-
tions as well as the naval stations.

DESERTIONS

One of the troubles of all navies
is found in the practice of deser-
tion. Many men cannot stand dis-
cipline, others become dissatisfied
for one reason or another, and, fail-
ing to understand the seriousness of
the offense or being willing to take
the chance of punishment if detect-

ed, absent themselves from the Navy
without permission and thus become
deserters. Two thousand three hun-
dred and twenty men thus deserted
during 1915, a decrease of several
hundred under 1914 and a still
larger decrease from lul.'l and 1912,
the figures for which are respect-
ively 8,1237 and 3.055. Of the 1915
deserters, 4S0 voluntarily returned
to service, and 41.'! absentees were
apprehended and delivered.

In 1!>07 a finger print identifica-
tion system was installed in the
identification office which now con-
tains the linger prints of 133,214
men, including, of course, all those
who have enlisted in the Navy since
the establishment of this system.
The result of the finger print sys-
tem is to prevent re-enlistment
under assumed names of men who
have deserted from the Army and
Navy or Marine Corps or who have
heen discharged for various reasons
which would prevent them from re-

LAYING THE KEEL OF A EATTLESHIP IS AN IMPRESSIVE CEREMONY

276

OUR <<»! N'IKV AND ITS RESOURCES

entering the service under their own
oames.

OFFICERS

The officers of the Navy are of
various classes, as follows: Line,
Medical, Dental, Pay. Chaplains.
Professors of Mathematics, Naval
Constructors and assistants. Civil
Engineers and assistants. Chief
Warrant Officers and Warrant Otli-
cers. On June 30, 1915, there were.
of all kinds. 3,803 officers in the
service.

Their classification is shown in
the appended table:

June 30,
1915

Line 2,02!)

Medical 351

Dental 31

Pay 221

Chaplains 27

Professors of mathematics 17

Naval constructors and assist-
ant naval constructors 77

Civil engineers and assistant-
civil engineers 40

Chief warrant officers 4f!S

Warrant officers 542

Total 3,803

Sixty-nine per cent of the Line
Officers, •"'"> per cent of the Warrant
Officers, 41 per cent of the Medical
Corps, 4". per cent of the Pay Corps,
30 per cent of the Dental Corps, 1
per cent of the Naval Constructors
and 53 per cent of the Chaplains
were doing sea duty during 1915.
It is therefore obvious — what is sel-
dom understood by the layman —
that a large proportion of the avail-
able officers of the Navy must be
engaged in shore duty — ranging all
the way from Annapolis work to
being in charge of a radio station,
from assignment to a navy yard to
that of the Naval Observatory —
without which the Navy as a fight-
ing organization would he like a
movable body without a directing
head.

According to the provisions of the
new Navy Bill, commissioned offi-
cers l of the line i instead of being
an arbitrary number will he based
on a percentage of the number of en-
listed men. The new law provides
that their shall he line officers to

the number of 4 per cent of the en-
listed personnel. At the present
time there are. in round numbers,
54.000 enlisted men. This number,
however, is to he largely increased
in the near future as fast as enlist-
ments can he made. Sixty-eight
thousand men tire authorized, and
4 per cent of this number, or 2,720,
is the number of line officers which
will command the new Navy.

Inasmuch as the number of offi-
cers in each grade has also been
placed upon a percentage basis, a
great deal of changing .and promo-
tion is going on. At the present
writing, 500 junior officers are tak-
ing examinations for promotions,
and practically all who pass will be
promoted. Congress, having in-
creased the number of appointments
to Annapolis, has provided for an
increase of trained officers in the
future. In a short time Annapolis,
instead of training from 900 to 1.2(H)
young men in the magnificent plant
where the Navy makes officers, will
be housing and teaching 1.500 or
more at a time.

NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD

One of the most spectacular ac-
complishments of the present ad-
ministration as far as the Navy is
concerned is the organization of the
Naval Consulting Board of Civilian
Experts to advise with the Navy
I department

Some of the greatest improvements
utilized by the Navy have come from
civilian inventors and civilian engi-
neers. It was a civilian who in-
vented the "Monitor," built the first
submarine, mastered the science of
flight, perfected wireless communi-
cation, invented the gyroscope com-
pass, electric steering gear, electric
propulsion and silk floss life pre-
servers.

The Secretary of the Navy. Mr.
Josephus Daniels, invited Thomas
A. Edison to help form this board.
Mr. Edison's acceptance was hailed
by the country as proof of a new
era joining the powers of invention
and the training of naval experts to
apply new discoveries to the in-

THE NEW NAVY

277

A FOURTEEN INCH 50-CALIBER GUN

creased efficiency of the Navy.
Members of eleven leading scientific
societies were asked to choose two
members each of the Naval Consult-
ing Board. Its members have no
status except the status of American
citizens glad to respond to a call
to put their talent, genius, learning
and time at the service of their
country. They even pay their ex-
penses when on their governmental
mission. As thus constituted, named
by their own societies, without
political or other suggestion, the
board as originally constituted was
composed of the most distinguished

civilian experts, each one of whom
in some department has won a high
place in his profession.

The original composition of the
committee was as follows :

Thomas A. Edison, Chairman, and
Miller Reese Hutchinson, Assistant
to the Chairman.

American Chemical Society — W.
R. Whitney and L. H. Baekeland.

American Institute of Electrical
Engineers — Frank J. Sprague and
P>. (i. Lamine.

American Mathematical Society-
Robert S. Woodward and Arthur G.
Webster.

Copyright Harris & Ewing

THE NAVAL CONSULTING BOARD IN SESSION

278

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Copyright International Film Service
THE SUPERDREADNOUGHT
"PENNSYLVANIA"

American Society of Civil Engi-
neers—Andrew M. Hunt and Alfred
Craven.

American Aeronautical Society —
.Matthew B. Sellers and Hudson
.Maxim.

inventors' Guild Peter Cooper
Hewitt and Thomas Robins.

American Society of Automobile
Engineers— Howard E. Coffin and
Andrew L. Hiker.

American Institute of Mining En-
gineers (Metals)— William L. Saun-
ders and Benjamin B. Thayer.

American Electro-Chemical Soci-
ety Joseph W. Richards and Law-
rence Addicks.

The American Society of Mechan-
ical Engineers William Le Hoy
Emmet and Spencer Miller.

American Society of Aeronautic
Engineers Henry A. Wise Wood
and Elmer A. Sperry.

They organized by the election of
these Officers: Chairman. Thomas
A. Edison; First Vice-Chairman,

Peter Cooper Hewitt: Second Yiee-
Chairman, William L. Saunders;

Secretary, Thomas Rollins: Assist-
ant to the Chairman. M. R. Hutchi-
son.

POWDER

The Navy as a whole has so many
activities, it is difficult to know
what to omit from so general a sur-
vey as this must be. But no navy
is of any use without guns, and guns
can't shoot without powder !

'POMP AND CIRCUMSTANCE"
ANNAPOLIS

During the fiscal year 1915, 3,984,-
978 pounds of smokeless powder was

manufactured at the Indian Head
(Md.) powder factory. This pow-

THE NEW NAVY

279

der cost $0..°,41256 per pound, con-
siderably less than it can be bought
for in the open market.

There was an increase of 700,000
pounds of new powder during 1915
over 1914, due not to increase in the
powder factory but to improved
methods of operation. With the new
nitrating house in full operation the
output of the Indian Head plant for
1916 will be about 5,000,000 pounds
and for the fiscal year 1917 about
6,000,000 pounds.

Owing to the abnormal rise in the
cost of raw materials on account of
the war, the cost of the powder now
being manufactured is higher than
for the last fiscal year, the raw ma-
terials for which were nearly all
contracted for before the war.

The amount of powder delivered
by the private plants during 1915
was 3,112,868 pounds, but now, be-
cause of the increase of powder mak-
ing facilities at Indian Head, out-
side contracts have been greatly re-
duced. At the same time, it is
recognized that the facilities for the
production of smokeless powder and
other explosives in the United States
enormously increased owing to the
demands of the belligerents for these
materials form a naval asset of
great value.

PEACE SERVICES

Of the functions of the Navy in
time of peace much could be writ-

ten, but space forbids. Perhaps

nothing sums its labors up better
than the words of Mr. Daniels in
transmitting his report to President
Wilson. He states that during 1915
"our ships have charted islands in
the Caribbean and in Alaskan
waters. They have been privileged
to carry thousands of non-com-
batants from the war zone to places
of refuge. They have protected
Americans and American interests
on the coasts of war-torn Mexico.
They have afforded a patrol of our
coasts to preserve neutrality. They
have carried aid to flood sufferers
in China and given succor to the
starving in Samoa. They have
transported marines to preserve
peace in the revolutionary period in
Haiti and have acted as protector
and custodian of the interests of
that island in the days of its travail.
Maneuvers, war games, target prac-
tice, reviews, have given evidence of
its readiness and titness. The in-
crease in its personnel and in their
training, the improvement in the
morale of officers and men. and the
perfection of its organization tell
the story of a year of effort crowned
with most gratifying advance.

"The Navy is strong. It must be
stronger to justify the confidence the
country reposes in it ... as the
first arm of defense of our shores
and the protection of the liberties
of our people."

THE TERRACE AT BANCROFT HAIL, ANNAPOLIS

CHAPTEK XXIII.

THE ARMY

By C. H. CLAUDY

TEUIUTOKIAI,

IN its territorial organization tho
Army is arranged in departments,

as follows :

The Eastern Department. — Em-
bracing the New England States,
New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania. Delaware, Maryland, District
of Columbia, Virginia. West Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Kentucky, Tennessee. Georgia,
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, the
post of Ft. Logan H. Roots, Arkan-
sas, the Coast Defenses of New Or-
leans and Galveston, the Panama
Canal Zone, and the island of Porto
Rico, with the adjacent islands and
keys. Headquarters are at Gov-
ernor's Island, N. Y.

The Southern Department in-
cludes the States of Texas (except
the Coast Defenses of Galveston),
Louisiana (except the Coast De-
fenses of New Orleans), Arkansas
i except the post of Ft. Logan H.
Roots i, Oklahoma, New Mexico and
Arizona. Headquarters are at Ft.
Sam Houston, Texas.

The Central Department. — Em-
bracing the States of Ohio, Michi-
gan, Indiana, Illinois. Wisconsin,
Minnesota, North Dakota, South
Dakota. Iowa. Missouri. Kansas,
Nebraska. Wyoming (except that
part included in the Yellowstone
Park). Colorado and the post of Ft.
Missoula. Mont. Its headquarters
are at Chicago, 111.

The Western Department includes
the States of Washington. Oregon.

Idaho. Montana (Ft. Missoula ex-
cepted). Yellowstone Park in Wyo-
ming, California, Nevada. Utah and
Alaska. Its headquarters are in
San Francisco, Cal.

The Hawaiian Department. — Em-
bracing the Hawaiian Islands and
their dependencies. Headcpiarters,
Honolulu, Hawaii.

The Philippine Department em-
braces all the islands of the Philip-
pine Archipelago, with headquarters
at Manila, P. I.

ORGANIZATION

Internally the Army is divided
as follows :

The General Officers. General
Staff Corps, Adjutant General's De-
partment, Inspector General's De
partment, Judge Advocate General's
Department, Quartermaster Corps,
Medical Department, Medical Re-
serve Corps. Dental Corps. Contract
Surgeons, Corps of Engineers, Ord-
nance Department, Signal Corps,
Bureau of Insular Affairs, Chap-
lains and Military Academy.

Commands in the field are organ-
ized as Cavalry, Field Artillery,
Coast Artillery. Infantry and Phil-
ippine Scouts.

On September 20, 1010. there were
authorized 11 Major Generals and
.*H) Brigadier Generals, 244 Colonels.
L'.'ll Lieutenant Colonels. <;r>x Majors.
2.01)0 Captains. 2,562 First Lieuten-
ants, 1,369 Second Lieutenants and
85 Chaplains as officers, a total of

Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc.

282

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

7,289 Cor a total authorized strength
of 117.o:;s enlisted men.

THE NEW ARMY BILL

Rut the new Army act of June
22. 1916, makes changes which will
be far-reaching in effect, increasing
the authorized strength to 175,000
men.

According to the new law the
Army of the United States shall con-
sist of the Regular Army, the Vol-
unteer Army, the Officers' Reserve
Corps, the Enlisted Reserve Corps,
the National Guard while in the
service of the United States, and
such other land forces as may be
authorized by law.

The Regular Army of the United
States, including the existing organ-
izations, is to consist of sixty-four
regiments of Infantry, twenty-five
regiments of Cavalry, twenty-one
regiments of Field Artillery, a Coast
Artillery Corps, the Brigade, Divi-
sion. Army Corps and Army Head-
quarters, with their detachments
and troops, a General Staff Corps,

the retired list, additional officers,
professors. Corps of Cadets, general
Army service detachment, and de-
tachments of Cavalry. Field Artil-
lery and Engineers, and the band
of the United States Military Acad-
emy, the post non-commissioned
staff officers, the recruiting parties,
the recruit depot detachments and
unassigned recruits, the service
school detachments, disciplinary
guards and disciplinary organiza-
tions. Indian Scouts, and other offi-
cers and enlisted men as may be
provided.

It is expressly stipulated in the
new law that the enlisted personnel
of all organizations of the Regular
Army shall be at all times main-
tained at a strength not below the
legal minimum strength.

The total enlisted force of the
Regular Army, excluding the Phil-
ippine Scouts and the enlisted men
of the Quartermaster. Medical and
Signal Corps, and unassigned re-
cruits, must not, except in actual or
threatened war. exceed 175.000 men.

ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ENTIRE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT
JUNE 30, 1916

Branches of Service

Officers

Enlisted Min

Total

25

25

1,012

10,896

11.908

207

1,948

2,155

778

14,646

15,424

262

5,664

5.926

728

19,185

lit. 913

1,604

36,123

ST. 727

7,303

7,303

4,616

«l.-i.76.-)

ion. :;m

182

5,430

5.612

4.79S

101,195

105.993

General officers

staff corps and departments

Engineers

Cavalry

Field Artillery

Coast Artillery Corps

Infantry

Miscellaneous

Tui al regular army.
Philippine scouts

Aggregate

.in Adjutant General's Department,
an Inspector General's Department,
a Judge Advocate General's Depart-
ment, a Quartermaster Corps, a
Medical Department, a Corps of En-
gineers, an Ordnance Department, a
Signal Corps, the officers of the Bu-
reau of Insular Affairs, the Militia
Bureau, the detached officers, the
detached non-commissioned officers,
the Chaplains, the Regular Army
Reserve, officers and enlisted men on

1915 STRENGTH

Bui even before the passage of

the recent Army lull there was a
considerable discrepancy between
what was authorized and what was
in existence. At the close of the
fiscal year HM.",. the most recent date
for which a report is available,
there were appropriations available
for the maintenance of an Aran
and all of the accessory employee-
aggregating 5,023 officers and 102.

■_'N|

>Mlt I'ur.XTKV AND ITS RESOURCES

985 enlisted men. Of these 67,000
men were mobile army troops, 20,-

000 coast defense troops, and the
balance Hospital Corps, quartermas-
ter men and other employees. Of
this total number, about 29,000 were
on service outside continental
United States, leaving about 46,000
mobile army troops and about 13,000
const defense troops within our
borders.

The actual strength of the entire
military establishment on June .*!(),
1915, by branches of service, is
shown in the table on page 282.

DISTRIBUTION

Prior to the Spanish War the
United States kept its Army at
home, with the exception of a few
officers and men opening up com-
munication in Alaska and in foreign
diplomatic service. How becoming
a world power affects Army life is
well shown in the accompanying
table.

ors. miscellaneous public works, etc. ;
$45,092,760.02 for rivers and har-
bors, and the balance, $111,744,185.95,
for military purposes, including the
support of the Army. Military Acad-
emy, militia, fortifications, arsenals,
military posts and miscellaneous
items.

The various items, showing ex-
penditures for "linn and authorized
for 1916, are shown in the table on
the next page.

KM.ISTMEXTS

Perhaps nothing in the new Army

bill is of greater importance than
the sections referring to enlistments
and reserve. Hitherto enlistments
have been for three years. Now
they are to be for seven years, three
in active service and four in the
reserve. There is also a provision.
designed to attract capable men who
do not desire so long an active serv-
ice, that an enlisted man serving a
year honorably may, on the recom-

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY

Geographical Distribution

Officers

Enlisted Men

Total

3,502

23

455
182

45

37

322

192

40

64,756

747

12,454
5,430
1,361
670
9,199
6,151

427

6S, 258

770

1 n i he Philippine [stands:

12,909

5,612

1 . 106

707

In the Isthmian Canal zone

Troops en route and officers at other for-

9,521
6,343

467

Total.

1,798

101,195

105,993

APPROPRIATION
The expenditures by the War De-
partment for all purposes during the
fiscal year 1915 amounted to $166,-
355,172.99. Of this amount, $9,518,-
227.02 was for the civil establish-
ment, that is, maintenance of the
War Departmenl as an Executive
Department, buildings and grounds

in and .around Washington, national
and military parks, monuments, na-
tional cemeteries, support of national
homes for disabled soldiers and sail-

mendation of certain superior offi-
cers and at the discretion of the
Secretary of War, be furloughed to
the Regular Army Reserve.

To further enlistments the Presi-
dent is authorized to utilize the
services of postmasters of the sec-
ond, third and fourth classes in pro-
curing recruits for the Army. For
each recruit secured by a postmas-
ter, who is accepted for enlistment,
the postmaster is to receive $5.

In addition to military training,

TIIK ARMY

285

EXPENDITURES FOR l«»15 AND APPROPRIATION FOR L916

Civil establishment (War Department proper).

Salaries, contingent expenses, etc. (including

office of public buildings and grounds)

Civil public works and miscellaneous (exclusive of
rivers and harbors) :

Military and national parks

Buildings and grounds in and around Washington

National cemeteries

Miscellaneous objects

National homo for disabled volunteer soldiers . . .

Miscellaneous relief acts, etc

Total civil establishment

Military establishment:

Support of the army

Military academy

Militia

Fortifications

Arsenals

Military posts and miscellaneous

Total military establishment

Rivers and harbors

Grand total

Expenditures

for the fiscal

vear ended

June 30, 1915

$1,897,151.91

587,560.14
373,950.81
328,912.21
955,170.07
4.193,665.65
1,181,816.23

.518.227.02

$98,076,645.78

996,035 . 84

5,007,814.98

6,300,355 . 59

481,096.19

882,237 . 57

$111,744,185.95

45,092,760.02

$160,355,172.99

Appropriations
for the fiscal
year ending

.lime 30, 1916

$1,925,598.00

407,060.00
314,490.00
312,070.00
379,760 . 00
4,931,009.50
1,973,471 20

510,243,458.70

$96,519,195.87

1,069,813.37

5,440,000.00

6,060,216.90

653,600.00

570,924 . 99

110,313,751.13
33,989,811.64

8154,547,021.47

soldiers in active service will here-
after be given the opportunity to
study and receive instruction upon
educational lines to increase their
military efficiency and enable them
to return to civil life better equipped
for either industry or general busi-
ness. Civilian teachers are to be
employed to aid Army officers in
such instruction, and "part may con-
sist of vocational education either
in agriculture or the mechanic arts."

PAY OF ENLISTED MEN

The monthly pay of eidisted men
is provided for rather liberally. Of
course, clothes, medical and dental
attention, quarters and rations are
furnished in addition to the follow-
ing monthly pay:

Quartermaster sergeant, senior
grade, Quartermaster Corps ; mas-
ter hospital sergeant, Medical De-
partment ; master engineer, senior
grade, Corps of Engineers ; and band
leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery
and Corps of Engineers, $75. Hos-
pital sergeant. Medical Department ;

and master engineer, junior grade,
Corps of Engineers. $65. Sergeant,
first class, Medical Department. $50.
Sergeant, first class, Corps of Engi-
neers ; regimental supply sergeant,
Infantry, Cavalry. Field Artillery
and Corps of Engineers ; battalion
supply sergeant. Corps of Engi-
neers ; and assistant engineer, Coast
Artillery Corps, $45. Assistant band
leader, Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery
and Corps of Engineers; and ser-
geant bugler, Infantry, Cavalry, Ar-
tillery and Corps of Engineers, $40.
Musician, first class, Infantry, Cav-
alry, Artillery and Corps of Engi-
neers ; supply sergeant, mess ser-
geant and stable sergeant, Corps of
Engineers ; sergeant, Medical De-
partment, $30; supply sergeant. In-
fantry. Cavalry and Artillery ; mess
sergeant, Infantry, Cavalry and Ar-
tillery; cook, Medical Department;
horseshoer, Infantry. Cavalry and
Artillery. Corps of Engineers, Signal
Corps and Medical Department;
stable sergeant, Infantry and Cav-
alry; radio sergeant, Coast Artillery

286

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Corps; and musicians, second class,
Infantry, Cavalry. Artillery and
Cor] is of Engineers, $30. Musician,
third class. Infantry, Cavalry. Ar-
tillery and Corps of Engineers ; cor-
poral, Medical I >epartment, $24. Sad-
dler, Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artil-
lery, Corps of Engineers and Medical
Department ; mechanic, Infantry.
Cavalry and Field Artillery and Med-
ical Department ; farrier. Medical De-
partment ; and wagoner. Infantry,
Field Artillery and Corps of Engi-
neers, $21. Private, first class. In-
fantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Med-
ical Department, $18. Private, Med-
ical Department, and bugler, $15.

LOSSES

With the prospect of so great an
increase in enlistment as the new
bill calls for. it is natural to in-
quire, first, what the general loss
to the Army may be, and, second,
if existing methods of recruiting,
even with the help of postmasters,
will serve.

Enlisted men of the Regular
Array, to the number of 27,020, were
discharged upon expiration of serv-
ice during the year ending June 30,
1915. During the preceding year the
number of discharges upon expira-
tion of service was 25,027, and dur-
ing 1913 it was 12,095. These num-
bers are, respectively, 19.7, 20, 11.3
per cent of the whole number of
enlisted men in service or of en-
listment contracts in force during
these years.

Losses from all causes other than
expiration of service in 1915 num-
bered 14.517. During the preceding
year the losses were 12.4S7, and
(luring 1913 they were 13,254. These
numbers are, respectively, 10.6, 9.97
and 12.4 per cent of the whole num-
ber of enlisted contracts in force
during these years.

The desertions from the Army
during the year ending June .".0.
1915, aggregated 4,435. which is ,",.23
per cent of the whole1 Dumber of
enlistment contracts in force. This
is a slight increase over the per-
centage (3.10) for 1914. The num-

ber of desertions during the year
1915 is 553 greater than the number
reported during 1914, but 16 less
than the number reported in 1913.
The increase in the number of deser-
tions over that for 1914 is natural,
because the number of enlistment
contracts in force during 1915 is
12,007 greater than in 1914. The
increase in desertions is due in part
to the fact that there were nearly
1,800 more original enlistments in
1915 than in 11)14, it being a well
known fact that desertions are fre-
quent during the early periods of
service.

ENLISTMENT METHODS

Recruiting officers at stations re-
port whether applications for enlist-
ment are the result, wholly or in
part, of any form of advertising.
The result of each of the several
methods of advertising during the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1915, is
given on the second page following.

RECRUITING FOR THE ARMY

The general recruiting detail at
the beginning of the fiscal year 1915
consisted of 129 commissioned offi-
cers and 831 enlisted men. At the
end of that year the detail consisted
of 124 officers and 636 enlisted men.
Sixty-five officers are regularly on
duty at general recruit depots and
59 officers on duty at recruiting
stations.

Within the year enlistments and
re-enlistments numbered 48,813, in-
cluding 44.427 for the line of the
Army, 1,031 for the Hospital Corps,
1,096 for the Quartermaster Corps,
834 for other staff departments, and
1,425 for the Philippine Scouts. The
enlistments numbered 31.939, of
whom 4.795 had former service. Of
these enlistments. 30.342 (4.2."5 with
former service) were for the line of
the Army, 33!) (120 with former
service) for the Hospital Corps, 175
(139 with former service) for the
Quartermaster Corps. 284 (78 with
former service) for other staff de-
partments, and 700 (203 with for-
mer service) for the Philippine

288

OUR rorxTRY AND its resources

ENLISTMENTS THROUGH ADVERTISEMENT

Methods of Advertising

Sight of recruiting flag and station

Recruiting poster

In parks and squares

Canvass by recruiting parties

Recruiting circulars

Recruiting booklet

Special circulars issued by recruiting parties

Newspaper advertising

Handbills

Advertising cards

Electric recruiting sign (2 districts)

Personal letters from recruiting officers

Baseball team (1 district)

News items in newspapers

Photographs (1 district, July, August and September)
Postal cards

Total

Not the result of advertising

Total number of applicants reported upon

Number of
Applications

64,703

28.197

22,589

11,900

11.011

5,792

5,341

4,159

3,734

905

696

545

435

139

135

41

160,922
6,575

167,497

Scouts. The re-enlistments for the
line of the Army numbered 14,085,
for the Hospital Corps 692, for the
Quartermaster Corps 921, for other
staff departments 550, and for the
Philippine Scouts G2G; in all, 10,874.

It should be noted that the Army
is very particular about men it ac-
cepts for enlistment. The total num-
ber of enlistments (48,813) for 1915
does not show that 130,200 men who
applied were rejected for one cause
or another — minority, small size,
aliens, illiteracy, disease, imperfect
physique, etc.

With so satisfactory a condition
existing and with the new induce-
ments provided, it is not felt that
any special difficulty will obtain in
recruiting 175.000 men in a reason-
able period.

RESERVE

The new enlistment law must
necessarily operate to procure an
Army Reserve of no mean propor-
tions within a very few years. Ac-
cording to the new law, this Reserve
is to consist of all the enlisted men
in the Reserve at the time the act
was passed (a number so small as
to be disregarded), all enlisted men
who sign for seven years and serve
three honorably, such men as may

be furloughed into the Reserve be-
fore completing three years' active
service, and all who hold an honor-
able discharge from the Army, with
good character, are yet physically
qualified and not over forty-five
years old, who may enlist in the
Reserve.

Reservists of the Army receive $24
a year in time of peace; if mobilized,
the Reservist takes status of a regu-
lar enlisted man and pay as such.
But in addition, on reporting phy-
sically fit for duty, a called-out Re-
servist will receive $3 for each
month he has belonged to the Re-
serve, as well as transportation and
subsistence from home to mobiliza-
tion point.

To secure a Reserve of officers
available for service in the Army,
as officers of the Quartermaster
Corps and other staff corps and de-
partments, as officers for recruit ren-
dezvous and depots, ami as officers
of volunteers, there is organized an
Officers' Reserve ('or] >s. Members
of the Officers' Reserve Corps are
not subject to call for service in
time of peace.

The President is authorized to ap-
point and commission as Reserve
officers in all grades up to and in-
cluding that of major, such citizens

THE ARMY

289

as are found qualified to hold such
coin missions.

ORGANIZED MILITIA

The Organized Militia in the va-
rious States according to the latest

returns had a reported strength of
8,705 commissioned officers and 120,-
693 enlisted men. Of this force.
1,406 officers and 5,446 enlisted men
belong to the staff and non-com-
batant branches, 440 officers and

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY SMALL ARMS
1, Old matchlock arquebuse. 2, Pistol showing wheel lock. 3, Flintlock musketoon. 4,
American or squirrel rifle. 5, American flintlock army rifle of 1815. 6, Springfield rifle,
1863. 7, Breech loading American army musket, 1824. 8, Sharp breech loading carbine,
1852. 9, The Burnside carbine, a Civil War weapon. 10, Spencer repeating breech loading
gun of 1860. 11, Henry magazine breech loading musket, 1860. 12, The Allin alteration
Springfield rifle, 1865. 13, The English Snider alteration. 14, Springfield rifle, 1873.
15, English, Martini-Henry rifle. 16, Prussian needle gun. 17, French Chassepot. 18, 1
French Lebel rifle of 1893. 19, English Lee-Enfield, 1903. 20, Late model of German
Mauser. 21, Austrian Mannlicher. 22, Latest Mauser model, used by Japan. 23, 1902
and 1908 Krag-Jorgensen, used by the United States, 24, Latest American military rifle.

290

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

7,438 enlisted men belong to the
Coast Artillery, and 6,859 officers
and 107,809 enlisted men to the
mobile branches (Engineers, Field
Artillery. Cavalry and Infantry).
The mobile troops, with auxiliary
forces, are organized into twelve tac-
tical divisions. The National Guard
of New York in its organization is
the closest approximation to a com-
plete divisional unit.

On a divisional basis there is an
excess of Infantry units equivalent
to 23 regiments, and a deficiency in
necessary elements as follows
(1915) :

48 Troops Cavalry.

74 Batteries Field Artillery.

88 Companies Machine Guns.

5 2/3 Battalions Engineers.

2 Battalions Signal Corps.

8 Field Hospitals.

20 Ambulance Companies.

11 Medical Supply Detachments.

13 Sanitary Detachments.

In connection with this part of
what would be a volunteer army
in time of war it is interesting to
note the issue of rifles to rifle clubs
and schools. Since the provisions
of the Act of Congress of 1914 have
been put into effect, 1.780 rifles and
1,440,500 rounds of ammunition have
been issued to 201 rifle clubs, of
which 195 drew both rifles and am-
munition, 05 ammunition only, and
1 rifles only. Twenty schools have
taken advantage of this act and
have drawn 1,015 rifles, 022 car-
bines, and 118.400 rounds of am-
munition. The rifles are of the model
of 1898; the carbines of the model
of 1899 (both Krag-Jorgensens).
The War Department has en-
deavored to make it as easy as
possible for the clubs and schools
to obtain arms and ammunition
under the provisions of this act.

AERONAUTICS

It is impossible in a short sketch
of this kind to take up and epi-
tomize the work of all the various
arms of the service. The Army or-
ganization is too vast a machine and
its activities too great to permit
brief treatment. Tts own yearly
reports require three large volumes

of a thousand pages each, not to
mention the thousands of documents
and orders continually issued.

But the aeronautical work of the
Signal Corps is too vital to be
omitted.

There is no blinking the fact that
up to the present the United States,
the cradle of aviation, has been most
laggard in Army development of fly-
ing, and this in spite of the fact
that it was the Signal Corps trials
of 1908 and 1909 which established
the heavier-than-air machine as a
factor in warfare.

The Signal Corps possesses an
Aviation School on North Island.
San Diego Bay, which is divided
into two main departments — the
training and the experimental and
repair department. The former is
devoted to the training of student
officers for junior military aviators,
the instruction of enlisted men in
flying, and the training of suitable
enlisted men for aviation mechani-
cians. The officers are given theo-
retical and practical courses in the
art of flying; in the construction,
operation and repair of aeroplanes
and aeronautical motors ; in meteor-
ology, and in the navigation of the
air. ' Enlisted men on flying duty
are instructed in the art of flying
and in the operation and care of
aeroplanes and motors. Aviation
mechanicians are trained to repair
aeroplanes and motors by a thorough
shop course. The personnel of the
training course consists of the offi-
cers assigned as instructors, two ex-
pert civilian instructors in flying,
and an expert civilian instructor on
motors.

The experimental and repair de-
partment is composed of the officer
in charge, an aeronautical engineer,
an aeronautical mechanical engi-
neer, and five civilian aviation
mechanicians. It is charged with
the conduct of experiments pertain-
ing to machines, motors and appur-
tenances, the study of new types.
and the repair and reconstruction of
aeroplanes and motors.

THE ARMY

291

During the year 3,458 flights of
a total duration of 1,269 hours and
50 minutes were made and 1,730
passengers carried.

The most important thing which
militated against military aviation
was lack of men. The new law is
liberal with the aviation section of
the Signal Corps, providing for one
colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, eight
majors, twenty-four captains, and
114 first lieutenants, to be selected
from among officers of the Army at
large of corresponding grades or
from among officers of the grade
below who are qualified as military
aviators.

Special inducements as to pay and
privileges are offered aviation offi-

cers and the bars have been taken
down for the married men and those
over thirty years of age. It has
been a vital necessity, for the United
States has hardly 100 trained aero-
plane pilots, both military and
civilian. England and France have
each over 3,000.

It is a fact that the new law and
enlarged appropriation ($13,280,000
plus two items of $300,000 for the
purchase of sites for aeronautical
stations) should go far, even if not
the whole way, in providing our
Army with capable aerial eyes in
sufficient numbers to place the na-
tion which invented the flying ma-
chine at least on a par with any
enemy likely to confront it.

The Lewis Gun (top)

The Maxim Gun The Benet.Mercier Gun (bottom)

MODERN MACHINE GUNS

Punching holes in packages of

bills

Receiving the bills

The top of the macerator
The macerator in action
Cutting the bills in two

DESTRUCTION OF OLD MONEY

CHAPTER XXIV.

UNCLE SAM'S MONEY

Part I.— THE TREASURY

TO the casual visitor at Wash-
ington, the Treasury is, out-
side, a beautiful example of
architecture and, inside, a bewilder-
ing succession of offices, vaults,
cages and rooms with people and
money in them. He is taken by a
guide to view monetary exhibits

$76,640,000 ON THE SHELVES IN ONE
BIN AT THE TREASURY

which pass his comprehension, per-
haps sees the interior of a vault
with more wealth than Midas ever
dreamed of, and leaves with the
confused impression that his Uncle
Samuel is very rich indeed, but

seems to need a lot of people and
paraphernalia to take care of his
cash !

As a matter of fact, the activities
of the Treasury Department are so
varied and so numerous that only
by a careful study of the laws under
which it operates or a reading of its
huge reports can any adequate idea
be gained of its work. As for Uncle
Sam's money and the way it is taken
care of, it may fairly be stated that
no visitor to the Treasury really
gets any adequate idea.

For instance, how much money is
there in the United States? Not
wealth — money and wealth are en-
tirely different. How many people,
uninformed, will guess that, if the
United States had to depend only
on its money, and not at all on its
wealth, it could pay its own ex-
penses but for two years before
going broke? Yet such is the case.

The general stock of money in the
United States June 30, 1915, was
$3,989,400,000. Of the total stock,
$420,200,000, or 10.53 per cent, was
in the Treasury as assets. Coin and
other money in national and other
reporting banks, exclusive of those
in the island possessions, amounted
to $1,448,600,000, and. including
$312,100,000 cash in Federal Reserve
Banks, the sum of $1,760,700,000, or
44.14 per cent of the total stock of
money, was held bv banks, the re-
maining $1,808,500,000, or 45.33 per
cent, being outside of the Treasury
and banks. The amount in circula-
tion, exclusive of coin and other

Copyright by Munn & Co., lue.

294

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

monev in the Treasury as assets,
is $3,*569,200,000, or $35.44 per cap-
ita, an increase of $107,200,000 and a
per capita increase of $1.09 over 1914.

The accompanying table shows
how this money is distributed.

Of the total money in circulation,
$1,002,981,438 is in sold coin and
certificates, $414,961,5S3 is United
States notes, Treasury notes and
Federal Reserve notes, $785,393,047
is in National Bank notes and $705,-
S83,506 in silver coin and certifi-
cates. Thus nearly half (40.59 per
cent) of our money in circulation
is gold or its representative.

THE WEALTH OF G0LC0NDA IN A

TREASURY VAULT— BILLS

AND COIN

Except on the Pacific roast, where
coin is still preferred to paper, the
bulk of all monetary transactions of
ordinary life is accomplished with
gold or silver certificates, bank
notes or the like. Held in some
suspicion when first authorized
(February 25, 1862), the familiar
"greenback" is in the public mind
to-day "as good as gold," even
though it be but a silver certificate.
For the people know that for every

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UNCLE SAM'S MONEY

295

greenback in their hands, calling for
a silver dollar, there actually is a
silver dollar waiting for them — or
for whoever calls with the "bill" to
ask for it — in the vaults at Wash-
ington.

In the first years of the war,
when the "greenbacks" were first
made legal, the total amount au-
thorized was $450,000,000 ; the high-
est amount outstanding at any time
was $449,338,902, on January 30,
1864.

The United States notes issued
and redeemed, by denominations,
during the fiscal year 1915, are set
out in the table on page 296.

It must not be supposed, however,
that this sum, in circulation and
constantly redeemed and reissued,
forms the bulk of the redemption
work done at the Treasury. Na-
tional Banks issue notes which have
to be redeemed, and the size of this
financial undertaking may be im-
agined when it is stated that the

COUNTING COINS BY MACHINES

By the canceling and retiring of
these notes as they were received in
the Treasury, the amount outstand-
ing was reduced more than $100,-
000,000 when the process was
stopped in 1878, Congress requiring
the notes to be reissued when re-
deemed. At that time the amount
outstanding was $346,681,016, and it
has not been changed since.

money received by the National
Bank Redemption Agency during
1915 was $782,633,567, the largest
for any year, and an increase of
$75,S76',965 over 1914. Of the amount
received, 46.53 per cent came from
banks located in New York City.
The number of packages was 45,532,
containing 76,287,975 notes, with an
average value of $10.03.

296

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Payments for notes redeemed was
made as follows : By Treasurer's
checks, $122,230,578; by remittances
of now United States currency,
$307,667,490, and gold, silver and
minor coin, $28,220; and by credit
of $340,482,729 in various accounts.
The notes assorted and delivered
amounted to $764,926,023, of which
sum $130,389,450, or 17.05 per cent,
was fit for use and was returned
to banks of issue in 92,952 packages.
The remainder, $034,536,573, or
82.95 per cent, was delivered to the
Comptroller of the Currency, $330,-
110,347.50 in 191,068 packages, as
unfit for use, to be destroyed and
replaced by new notes sent to the
banks of issue, and $304,426,225.50,
in !'.">. s::o packages, for destruction
and retirement from circulation
against deposits for that purpose.

Securities to lie destroyed are de-
livered to the so-called destruction
committee, composed of representa-
tives from the Secretary's Office and
from fiscal bureaus concerned. Some
idea of the amount of work handled
by this committee may be had from
the fact that during the year just
closed 377,364,188 redeemed notes
(paper money) of a nominal value
of $1,541,131,111, were destroyed, as
well as large quantities of other
securities.

Securities to be destroyed are
counted, the count verified, the paper

cut in pieces or punched and the
pieces then fed to a macerating ma-
chine, which, with water and pow?er,
makes a pulp of what once was
money, which is largely used by
souvenir makers to construct memen-
toes of Washington !

But a "bill" is not destroyed with-
out cause. Formerly any soiled or
creased bill sent in was condemned,
a new one put in its place, and the
old one destroyed. Now. however.
Uncle Sam has a wonderful money-
laundering machine which washes,
resizes, dries and irons out paper
currency unfit for circulation but
not yet torn or badly worn. The
result is a "bill" hardly to be told
from new. There are laundering
machines at Washington and at the
sub-treasuries at New York, Phila-
delphia and Chicago.

Naturally, it takes fine paper to
stand washing — and, indeed, no finer
paper than that used for "green-
backs" can be bought.

The paper is made by a secret
process under Treasury supervision
by annual contract under competi-
tive bids.

The Bureau of Engraving and
Printing, a branch of the depart-
ment, designs, under the direction
of the Secretary, engraves and prints
the notes and certificates complete.
This currency is delivered to the
Treasurer in packages of 4,000 notes,

I'MTED STATES NOTES ISSUED AND REDEEMED

Denominations

Outstanding
June 30, 1914

One dollar

Two dollars

Five dollars

Ten dollars

Twenty dollars

Fifty dollars

< »ne hundred dollars. .
Five hundred dollars.
One thousand dollars.
Five thousand dollars.
Ten thousand dollars

Total

Unknown, destroyed.

Net

l
202

93
8
1
3
3

29

823

307

99e

753
470
,690

77:>
,867
,927

218
225
730
256
812
.275
000
500
in to

1(1,000

347,681,016
l ,000,000

Fiscal Year. 1915

Issued

1103,580,000
52,880,000

SSI). I KM)

600,000

50,666

2,000,000

159,990,000

346,681,016 I 159.9tio.ooo

Redeemed

Outstanding
.Time 30, 1915

S3, 678

3,612

104.453,570

38,675,260

1,258,180
259,900
791,300

1,168.500
13,376,000

159,990,000

159.990.000

SI ,819,541

1,363,612

202.123,160

107,957,996

8.092,632

2,030,375

2,983,700

2,749,000

18,551.000

10,000

347.681,016
1,000,000

346.681.016

UNCLE SAMS MONEt

291

the product of 1.000 sheets of paper.
Such a package is taken as the unit
from which to reckon the cost.

Allowing for every item of ex-
pense attending making, issuing and
the redeeming of paper currency,
the average cost is as follows :

Total average expense of 4,000

notes issued $52.50

Total average expense of 4,000

notes redeemed 8.54

Aggregate average expense of

issue and redemption $01.04

"greenback" into circulation. And
it is staggering to find the total cost
for redemption of 299,455,985 pieces,
and issuing of 2S0,174,317 pieces
(1915) to total $4,316,626.44 in this
year.

But a curious little fact commends
itself to the thoughtful. Though it
costs this sum to issue and redeem
paper currency, that sum is more
than saved by the prevention of
abrasion of gold and silver coin.
If we had not the notes, we would

THE BILL WASHING MACHINE ALWAYS ATTRACTS ATTENTION AND IS
FREQUENTLY LOANED TO EXPOSITIONS

It is interesting in this connection
to know that the life of a United
States one dollar note averages 3.14
years, while the five dollar note av-
erages 2.73 years. The average life
of all denominations of United
States notes is 3.22 years.

It actually costs the Government,
then, about 1.526 tents to put a

use the coin. The Government saves
the loss by abrasion by letting paper
be "abraded" and keeping the coin
in its vaults. Think it over !

With all his multitudinous activi-
ties, and the huge sums of income
and outgo with which he deals.
Uncle Sam has so modern and accu-
rate a system of bookkeeping that

298

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

he knows every day just where he
stands. And curious though it may
seem, his whole balance sheet may
he written on a page smaller than
that required for the same informa-
tion of many a big private industry.

Below is a condensed balance sheet,
showing just where Uncle Sam's
money comes from, when it arrives
in the Treasury, and just where it
goes to when it is paid out. The
sheet covers years 1914 and 1915.

RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE FISCAL YEARS, 1914 AND 1915

Account

Receipts

Customs

Internal revenue:

Ordinary

Corporation and in-
come tax

Lands

Miscellaneous

Receipts of the District

of Columbia

Total

Deduct moneys covered
by warrant in year
subsequent to the de-
posit thereof

S292, 320,014. 51

308,659,732.56

71,381,274.74

2,571.774 77

50,855,941.14

8,752,937.11

734,541,674.83

505,970.59

Total

Add moneys received in
fiscal year but not
covered by warrant

Net available . . .
Disbursements

Legislative

Executive

State Department

Treasury Department

War Department, civil.

Navy Department, civil.

Interior, civil

Post Office Department

proper

Postal deficiencies. . . .

Department of Agricul-
ture

Department of Com-
merce

Department of Labor. . .

I h-part merit of Justice. .

Independent offices ....

District of Columbia. . .

734,035,704.24

637,462.47

734,673,166.71

Total civil and mis
cellaneous

Military Establishment .
including rivers and
harbors

Naval Establishment

Indian Service

Pensions

Interest on the public
debt

Total ordinary dis
luirsements. . . .

Net

Surplus

Deficit

13,468

564

5,253

60,139

2,237

860

22,656

827 . 66
134.36
911.78
856 . 78
069.37
,873.02
,130.62

1915

;209,786,672.21

335,467,887.14

80,201,758.86

2,167,136.47

59,441,800.12

9,790,474.18

$26,808,154.58
8,820,484.12

696,855,728.98

637,462.47

696,218,266.51

1,692,561 .0;

Increase

SS2,533,342.30

8,585.^58.98
1,037,537.07

45,252,034.75

131,491. SS

45,120,542.87

1,055,098.60

2,236,202.24

22,208,141.12

10,958,882.40
3,768,904.05

10,188,151.26
3,232.179 61

12,756,971.18

170.530,235.45

173,522,804 20

L39.682.186 28

20,215,075.96

173,440,231 li-'

22,863,956.70

697,910,827.58

13,577,399.19
3,065,880.50
4,908,606.79

71.107,291.59

2.215.535.19

885,870.15

29,069,642.99

1,894,873.64
6,636,592.60

29,131,112.07

11,499,098.76
3,783,611.86

10,434,871.97
5,738.773 7S

13.220.662.97

108,571.53
2,501,746.14

Decrease

404,638.30

32,937.980.60

82,937,980.60

36.762,339.13

10, 967. 434. SI

24,997.13
6,413,512.37

700,254, 489 7 1

34,418,677.00

207,169,824.05

172,973.091 .73

141,835,653.98

22,130,350.70

164,387. '.Ml r,|

22,902.s'.i7 (M

731,399,759.11

33,488.931.53

6,636,592.60

6,922,970.95

540,216.36

14.707 81

246.720 71

2,506,594.17

463,691.79

37.3 17,756.37

2,153.467.70
1,915,274.74

38,940 . 34

41,455,439.15
31,145,269.40

345,304.99
' 21,534.1.8

341.32S.60

708,167.77

549,712.47

9,052,289.51

10,310,169.75

Part II.

THE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING

By Hon. JOSEPH E. RALPH, Director

THE Bureau of Engraving and
Printing was organized under
act of July 11, 1862, and its
first work was an attempt to apply
machinery to the trimming and sep-
arating of Treasury notes, such
notes having been printed by private
bank note companies and then for-
warded to Washington for signature
of the Register of the Treasury, and
the Treasurer of the United States.
This work, however, soon became
physically impossible for these offi-
cers to perform and a large corps of
clerks was employed for this pur-
pose. This was very expensive, and
to obviate it authority was granted
by Congress to have these signatures
engraved in the plates and the seal
of the Treasury imprinted on the
notes, and steps were taken to pro-
cure the necessary machinery to per-
form this work of sealing in the
Treasury Department.

Following the successful execution
of this work, it was determined that
an effort should be made to per-
form, under official supervision, the
entire mechanical work upon United
States securities, and authority
therefor was granted by the act of
July 11, 1S62, which authorized the
Secretary of the Treasury, in case
he deemed it inexpedient to procure
such notes by contract, to cause them
to be engraved, printed and executed
at the Treasury Department, and as
prior to the passage of this act none
of the public securities had been en-
graved or printed otherwise than by
private contract, this act may be re-

garded as the organic act. of the
Bureau of Engraving and Printing.

From time to time following this
date the work done by private com-
panies was gradually absorbed by
the bureau until all of the printing
of the securities of the Government
was done at that bureau, and the last
work taken over by it from private
contractors was the printing of the
postage stamps which the bureau
undertook in 1S94.

The bureau is the Government fac-
tory for producing its paper money,
bonds, revenue, postage and custom
stamps, checks, drafts and all im-
portant documents printed from en-
graved plates. The output in the
fiscal year just ended, June 30, 1916,
had a value of approximately 3%
billions of dollars.

Putting it in a more concrete form,
the daily output of United States
notes, gold and silver certificates and
National bank notes, is two and one-
quarter million notes, having a face
value of nine million dollars, and
weighing over three and one-half
tons. If laid out flat they would
cover nine acres, and if placed end
to end the daily output would make
a chain two hundred and fifty miles
long.

Each day forty million postage
stamps are manufactured, which
would cover approximately seven
acres, or make a chain of stamps
six hundred and twenty miles long.
The value of each day's output is
nearly seven hundred and fifty thou-
sand dollars. Six hundred em-

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

;;<iii

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

ployees are engaged in their manu-
facture. Fifty-one different kinds of
postage stamps in denominations
from one cent to five dollars are
made for the United States and its
insular possessions. They are print-
ed in fifteen distinctive colors.

Another important part of the Bu-
reau's work is internal revenue
stamps, through which an annual in-
come of over five hundred million
dollars is collected for Uncle Sam.
These stamps are of larger sizes
than postage stamps and while the
daily output is only twenty million
stamps, they would cover twenty
acres if spread out in single sheets
and weigh six and one-half tons.
More than three hundred different
varieties are issued.

It is a noteworthy fact that such
enormous quantities of securities are
produced year after year at this es-
tablishment without the loss of one
cent to the Government, and is a
testimonial to the integrity and abil-
ity of the employees, not one of
whom is bonded, as well as to the
efficiency of the system under which
they operate. Be it further said to
the credit of these employees that
not one has ever engaged in the
counterfeiting of the securities man-
ufactured by this bureau.

The bureau employs the most ex-
pert designers, engravers, plate
printers and other artisans requisite
to a large plate printing establish-
ment, several of whom entered its
service during the Civil War shortly
after the bureau was organized, and
Avho are capably occupying positions
of trust and responsibility.

The number of employees in the
bureau engaged in the making of
paper money is 2,800; in making
postage stamps, 600; in making rev-
enue stamps, 600, and about 100 in
making bonds, checks, Commissions
and various other classes of work:
the total Dumber of employees be-
ing 1,100; 2,200 of whom are fe-
males. The maximum and minimum
salaries of males is $6,600 and $320,
respectively, per annum, and of fe-

males, $2,100 and $300, respectively,
per annum.

An idea of the business growth of
the United States may be gleaned
from the fact that the Government
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
delivered 11,771,2S3,150 perfect pos-
tage stamps during the fiscal year
1916. The paper required for this
work amounted to 1,100,000 pounds,
and to make this paper 4,500 large
pine trees were ground to a pulp.

Had these trees been converted
into lumber, 85 well-appointed bung-
alows could have been built. The
paper itself would make an edition
of 3,500,000 twelve-page seven-col-
umn newspapers. As the stamps
were printed from intaglio-engraved
plates in which the entire surface
is covered with ink and wiped with
a cloth that leaves the ink only in
the engraved lines, the amount of
ink required was 02.">,000 pounds.
But only 10 per cent of this was
actually applied to the stamps, the
balance being wiped off. The gum
on the back of the stamps is made
by scientifically roasting the highest
grade of tapioca flour, such as is
used for making pudding, and as
350,000 pounds were used, all of the
inhabitants of a large city would
have been given their fill of tapioca
pudding for one meal with the ma-
terial used.

The sheets of one hundred stamps
each, as sent to the post offices,
piled upon each other, would make
a shaft over six and three-fifths
miles high, and placed end to end
would make a strip 16,500 miles long,
and as there are ten rows of stamps
in each sheet, a strip of single
stamps would be 165,000 miles long,
and would girdle the earth six times,
with something over.

The Bureau of Engraving and
Printing prints all of the securities
of the United states Government,
which embraces checks. drafts,
bonds, paper money, revenue, cus-
toms, parcel post and postage stamps
and certificates of deposit for the
Post Office Department,

302

OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

It has been our constant endeavor
not only to safeguard our stamps
and circumvent their counterfeiting,
but to make them really artistic.
When you comprehend the small
space allowed for artistic embellish-
ment, you necessarily must marvel
at the results we obtain.

The engraving division is the cor-
nerstone of the bureau and the bul-
wark of our securities. In this divi-
sion every form of security has
its origin, and the most artistic
and skilled engravers that the world
produces are employed here.

Steel engraving is the perfection
of art as applied to securities ; it
differs from painting and sculptur-
ing, inasmuch as the engraver who
carves bis work on steel plates must
deliberately study the effect of each
infinitesimal line. Free hand with
a diamond-pointed tool, known as a
graver, aided by a powerful magni-
fying Lrlass. he carves away, con-
scious that one false cut or slip of
his tool or miscalculation of depth
or width of line will destroy the
artistic merit of his creation, and
weeks or months of labor will have
been in vain. In no other form of
printing can the beautiful, soft, and
yet strong effects in black and white
be obtained as in steel engraving.
The introduction of cheap mecbani-
cal process work has superseded the
beautiful creations of our master en-
graver commercially, and now we
i i 1 1 « I the art limited to the engrav-
ing of securities as applied in the
Bureau of Engraving and Printing.
The work in this division is clas-
sified and divided so that tbe en-
gravers become specially skilled in
some particular branch of tbe art.
For instance, they are classified as
portrait, script, square letter and
ornamental engravers. Each is con-
lined to bis own specialty, and thus
becomes unusually expert, tbe result
beini: that not only better work is
secured, but a greater amount is
turned out in a given time, and what
• ■; of greater importance, increased
security is obtained. The individual

excellencies and characteristics of a
number of men are impressed upon
every stamp issued. Therefore, it
would be as difficult for one en-
graver to make a perfect reproduc-
tion of a Government plate as it
would be for the reader to reproduce
an absolute facsimile of his or her
own signature, and, strange as it
may seem, no one has yet accom-
plished this feat.

To the credit of the engravers and
employees of this division, it should
be stated that in the history of the
bureau none of its employees has
ever engaged in counterfeiting.

When it is determined to issue a
new stamp, the matter is discussed
by the officials having in charge the
several branches of the service in-
volved, and the conclusions reached
are embodied in a model made by a
trained designer, which is submitted
for the criticisms of the officers who
discussed the matter in the first
place. The model is then modified
in accordance with the criticisms,
and is finally approved by the Post-
master General.

The approved design is placed in
the hands of the engravers who cut
it upon a small piece of annealed
steel. After the approval of a proof
of this engraving, the piece of steel
is heated red hot in cyanide of potas-
sium and hardened by suddenly dip-
ping it into oil and water. This
single engraved subject is duplicated
four hundred times upon the larger
plates that the stamps are printed
from, by means of the transfer
process.

This is a method of reproducing
engraving devised many years ago
by Jacob Perkins, an inventive
American, who may be considered
the father of the present method of
duplicating bank note and stamp
plates. It consists of making a re-
versed duplicate or mold of the orig-
inal engraving by rolling a soft, an-
nealed steel roll upon it in the trans-
fer press. Being accurately guided
and held by the mechanism of this
press, continued rolling under high

304

OIK COUNTRI AND ITS RESOURCES

pressure forces the soft steel of the
roll into the engraved lines of the
original design, and forms an exact
counterpart, in relief, of it. This
roll, being hardened, is used to dup-
licate the engraving by the same
process, upon a soft steel plate,
which it will do a great number of
times before wearing out, reserving
the original engraving, or die as it
is called, for making additional rolls.
The original engraving is never
printed from except to make what
are known as die-proofs.

The paper, being printed wet,
Contracts on drying, and the mathe-
matically correct layout of the en-
graved plate bears only an approxi-
mate relation to the desired printed
sheet. The paper we print to-day
will vary in shrinkage from that we
print to-morrow. As the physical
properties of the tree govern the ex-
pansion and contraction of the paper
made therefrom, no two sheets are
exactly the same size. The actual
difference in size of the individual
stamp is too minute to be readily
discernible, but becomes a serious
factor when the row is twenty
stamps long as we now print the
sheets.

But that is not all. To smooth
the paper for the operation of gum-
ming, it is subjected to 500 tons
pressure in a hydraulic press, and
if very dry, it. stretches but little,
but if the day is damp and humid
it stretches perceptibly. The con-
traction of the gum itself is a fac-
tor, and the atmospheric conditions
still another. Our perforating ma-
chines have not human intelligence,
and they blindly perforate the sheets
alike until their adjustment is
changed. Therefore, the best we
can do is to average the adjustment
and it is only by chance that all the
perforations are exactly central. Of
course, it will lie understood that
typographic printing, being done on
dry paper, eliminates many of these
problems, and no greal feat is per
formed in perfectly centering the
perforations on a dry printed stamp.

The present method of printing
stamps is accomplished upon what is
known as the "four plate power
press." Four plates are used in or-
der that the operation of inking,
wiping, polishing and taking the im-
pressions may be done simultaneous-
ly. This press requires the service
of a printer to polish the plates, one
girl to lay the sheet in position and
another girl to take it off after
printing.

After each two hundred sheets are
printed, they are counted and dried.
To secure a flat surface for subse-
quent operations, they are pressed
in a hydraulic press.

They are next gummed by passing
beneath a glass roller which is bath-
ed in a solution of dextrine (which
forms the gum), and the sheets are
then carried by grippers through a
drying chamber in which the gum
is dried in less than thirty seconds.
Just before leaving the gumming
machine, the sheets are carried
through a device that breaks the
gum into innumerable cracks and
materially prevents subsequent curl-
ing.

The printed and gummed sheets of
400 stamps are now fed through a
rotary perforator that perforates the
stamps in one direction and cuts
the sheets in half. Another perfora-
tor of the same construction perfor-
ates the stamps crosswise and makes
another cut, thereby quartering the
original sheets.

Alter a close and rigid inspection,
these sheets are counted and made
into packages tor final packing for
shipment to the post offices.

The new building for the use of
the Bureau of Engraving and Print-
ing has been occupied since early
in tin- spring of 191 1. This building
is the most modern type of factory
building in the United states. While
the exterior of the building is clas-
sic and monumental in style, the
wings, which are utilized for factory
purposes, are constructed along mod-
ern factory lines.

The building is about 505 feet

Putting on the Seal and Numbering The Ink Mills

Sizing the Bills The final Step; Sealing and Numbering

THE PAPER COMES OUT MONEY

UNCLE SAM'S MONEY

307

long, fronting on Fifteenth Street,
with a depth of about 296 feet and
a height of 105 feet. It has a base-
ment, four stories and attic, and is
in the form of the letter "E," but
with four wings instead of three,
making three open end courts, two
of which are approximately 230 feet
long to the end of tbe wing. The
two inner wings, to allow space for
the driveways, are about 30 feet
shorter.

Tbere is a mezzanine gallery on
each floor, having a total length of
about 1,800 feet on all floors where

installed, which is used by the pub-
lic for viewing the more interesting
operations of the bureau, and this
may be done without the possibility
of any loss of a security or inter-
ference with the workmen.

None of the employees are permit-
ted to leave tbe building during the
lunch hour, as each individual em-
ployee is held accountable for the
securities which he or she is hand-
ling during the working hours, and
to permit them to leave the building
would necessitate a check or count,
which would be too expensive.

I'm.

U hill

HAND VS,

Photo Harris & Ewing
MACHINE COUNTING

Part III.

UNITED STATES ASSAY OFFICE AT NEW YORK

By Hon. VERNE M. BOVIE, Superintendent

THE United States Assay Office
opened its doors at 30 Wall
Street in 1854. It occupied the
same historical building until its age
made its demolishment necessary in
15)14. In 1910 a new eight story
building was built adjoining the old
in the rear, and with an entrance
on Pine Street. Since that time its
operations have been carried on
there. Appropriations have now
been made by Congress for the erec-
tion of a new building on the site
of the old Wall Street building, to
be joined to the present Pine Street
building, so that for the indefinite
future the office will continue its
service from the same historic site
tin which it started.

From deposits of a few thousands
in value in 1854, the importance of
the office has increased to such an
extent that for the fiscal year 1916
the aggregate value of the deposits
received and handled amounted to
the huge sum of $325,958,585.38. Of
this $321,609,043.73 was gold and
*4.:;4s.941.65 silver. $253,957,895.26
was from foreign countries and $72,-
000,690.12 from the United States.
The number of deposits made was
17,338. During the year 149,867
assays were made.

The Assay Office is the great pur-
chasing, as well as selling, agent for
gold for the Government. It is the
station where the crude wealth pro-
duced by our own mines, and the
wealth that all the world sends to
our shores in the ordinary activi-
ties of commerce, is converted into

values of United States dollars and
cents.

We purchase gold in any amounts
from $100 in value up— in any form
suitable for mint purposes and from
any source. We receive gold dust
from Alaska and Dutch Guiana ;
bullion from Mexico. South and Cen-
tral America ; L'old and silver coins
from all the countries of the world :
old gold and silver jewelry from
pawnbrokers and jewelers; tine gold
bars and mixed bullion, and light
weight and mutilated United States
coin.

The purchase is made at the ac-
tual gold value at the uniform rate
of $20.67 per line ounce. Silver is
paid for in fine silver bars, which,
in turn, are marketed by the depos-
itors at the current price in the
open market.

The process by which the crude
bullion is turned into fine metal is
itself an interesting one. The office
is divided into four general depart-
ments : the Deposit and Weigh
Room, where the metal is first re-
ceived, weighed and melted ; the
Assay Department, where its value
and fineness are determined ; the
Melting and Refining Department,
where it is refined and cast into fine
bars ; the Clerical Force, where the
calculations are made and final pay-
ments provided for.

Immediately upon its receipt the
deposit is weighed and at once sent
to the Deposit Melting Room, where
it is melted and thoroughly mixed
and cast into bars. From the liquid

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

310

OI'R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

metal samples are taken during this
melting from which the assays are
made. These determine the propor-
tions and fineness of the gold and
silver contents. The melted deposit
is again weighed in the Deposit
Weigh Room, its values determined
by the assays made from the sam-
ples previously taken, and payment
made by check by the Superintend-
ent drawn on the Treasurer of the
United States. The bar of mixed
Lrold and silver is then turned over
by the head of the Deposit Weigh
Room to the Superintendent of the
Melting and Refining Department.
Here it is again melted and cast
into thin slahs or anodes about IS
inches long and VL inch thick of
about the composition of two thirds
silver and one third gold. These
anodes are put in a muslin hag and
are hung in a solution of silver
nitrate and free nitric acid opposite
a strip of pure silver called the
silver cathode. Electric current is
passed through and the silver passes
from the anode to the cathode in
pure silver crystals. It is scraped
off into huge earthen jars and then
taken to the melting room and cast
into its final form of tine silver bars.
The residue remaining in the mus-
lin hag is taken out. washed and in
turn melted and cast into smaller
anodes, or slabs, which in turn are
taken to the gold refining room and
by a similar electrolytic process the
fine gold extracted. The gold is
then in the form of a warty, irregu-
lar slab of gold. This in turn is

melted and cast into fine bars ready
for the vaults or for trade purposes.

During the refining process the
base metals and by-products are
taken into solution ami are later
precipitated by chemical reaction
a nd recovered.

When it is realized that the ordi-
nary deposit in its course through
the office is melted five times: that
not less than five and often seven
or more assays are made of it: that
each bar is stamped with five sep-
arate stamps; that it must be con-
stantly weighed and re-weighed and
checked and re-checked: some con-
ception may be had of the care and
attention to detail required in the
office.

Experimental work, looking to the
discovery of better and more efficient
methods, is being constantly carried
on. The office uses the most perfect
appliances obtainable for its work
and seeks constantly to increase the
efficiency and perfect the products
of its labor.

With the increased development
of the commerce of the country and
the recent almost phenomenal
growth of its financial power, the
Importance of the work of the Assay
Office, as related to the financial and
business world, constantly increases.
It is now the largest and most com-
pletely equipped office of its kind in
the world and through its doors is
destined to pass in continuing vol-
ume the golden stream that will
make the United States the financial
master of the world.

Part IV.

HOW COINS ARE MINTED

By Hon. A. M. JOYCE, Superintendent
U. S. Mint, Philadelphia

IN the operation of providing
coinage for the country the Gov-
ernment purchases the gold bul-
lion from anyone who offers it fin-
sale at the rate of one dollar for
each 23.2 grains of pure gold, or
about $20.67 per ounce, and silver at
the market quotations when request-
ed. This bullion, if in an unrefined
state, is refined and separated from
all foreign matter. It is then sent
to the mint and delivered to the
superintendent of the melting de-
partment. Nine parts of pure gold
or silver are mixed with one part of
copper (alloy) and the mixture
melted in crucibles placed in the gas
furnaces. It is then poured into
molds and produces ingots about 12
inches long. iy2 inches thick, and
from 1 to 2 inches wide, depending
upon the denomination to be made.

Granulations of these ingots or
melts are taken and sent to the assay-
ing department and assayed for their
fineness. If found correct, the ingot is
stamped with the number and fine-
ness of the melt : if not correct, it
is condemned and remelted. This
then places the responsibility for the
legal fineness of every coin upon the
assayer. The ingots passed by the
nssayer as correct are then delivered
to the superintendent of the coining
department.

The superintendent of the coining
department upon receiving the in-
gots from the superintendent of the
melting department passes them
cold, through ten-inch hardened

steel rolls, eighteen or twenty times,
depending upon the denomination,
each driven by a fifty horse-power
electric motor, each draft reducing
the thickness, and adding to the
length of the strip until the last
draft leaves it of such a thickness
that a coin of the desired denomi-
nation cut from it will weigh as
nearly the right weight as it is pos-
sible to roll. After rolling the ingot
to the required thickness of the coin,
or denomination required, it is put
through the cutting machine where
the blank, or planchet, is punched
out, leaving the clippings to be re-
turned to the melting room, there
to be re-melted and returned to in-
gots.

The blanks are then sent to the
selecting tables, where women desig-
nated as selectors examine the
blanks and pick out all imperfect
pieces or cuts, known as "chips."

The gold planchets or blanks are
then sent to the weighing room,
where they are passed through the
automatic weighing machines.

In practice it is impossible to Cut
all the gold planchets so that they
will each weigh precisely the stand-
ard weight, therefore, the law per-
mits a tolerance or variation of the
weight from standard of one-half
grain on double-eagles and eagles,
and one-quarter grain on half and
quarter-eagles.

The machines, known as automatic
weighing machines, then weigh each
of the planchets separately, and

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

314

OUR COUNTS! AND ITS RESOURCES

those found one-half grain above

standard arc deposited in a separate
box, and marked "heavies." and
those found standard and one-half
grain light are placed in a separate
l>"\ and marked "lights." The
"heavies" that are found above the
limit of tolerance are passed through
a machine known as the shaving
machine and reduced to within the
limit of tolerance, one-half or one-
quarter grain, depending on the de-
nomination, to good "heavies" one-
half and one-quarter grain above
standard. Those that are found too
light are condemned and l'o back
to the melting pot. After coinage,
all coins are again re-weighed. At
this stage the metal, after going
through the various operations. is
very hard. and. before it can he
stamped, it is necessary to anneal or
soften the same, otherwise it would
be very destructive to the dies when
the piece is being struck on the
coining presses. The blanks are
placed in a gas annealing furnace,
where they remain in the retort un-
til they become a "cherry red," when
they are dropped from the furnace
into water to beep them from oxi-
dizing. After coming out of the wa-
ter they are cleaned in a weak acid
solution and dried out in centrifugal
machines. They are then sent to the
milling or upsetting machines,
where the edge is turned up <>n the
blank. The blanks are now bright
and soft and ready for stamping or
coining. In the coining room they
are fed into the coining presses by
automatic feeders, and the automatic
fingers on the presses take one piece

at a time from the bottom of the
tube attached to the automatic feed-
er and place it between the dies, at
the same time pushing the finished
pieee .nit : 1 1 1 < 1 dropping it in a
screened bos at the side of the press.

The upper and lower die being re-
spectively the obverse and reverse
sides <if tlie coin, in this position
it drops automatically into a collar
which Is internally engraved to con-
form to the edge of the coin, known

as the reeding: at that instant the
dies approach each other under a
pressure of one hundred tons to the
square inch, and the planchet is
pressed so that the metal is driven
into every corner and crevice of the
engraved die, and at. the same time
outward into the engraving on the
interior of the collar producing the
reeding or rough edge. This enor-
mous pressure is regulated by ad-
justing screws, which determine just
how close together the two dies, up-
per and lower, will lie brought to
each other, and this adjustment is
made so they shall come just close
enough together to bring out every
detail of the engraving.

This coinage operation proceeds
at the rate of from 90 to I2i> pieces
coined per minute, on one press, the
speed of operation being adjusted
according to the size of the press.
There are in the Mint at Phila-
delphia twenty-four coining presses
Of three different sizes.

After stamping, each coin is sep-
arately inspected and weighed. Six
automatic inspecting machines are
in use. Each machine is operated
by two women who have a view of
each side of the coin as it passes
through the machine. The weighing
is done on the automatic scales. The
law permits a variation of one-half
grain on double-eagles and eagles,
and one-quarter of a grain on half
and quarter-eagles, and one and a
half grains on all silver coins, from
the standard weight. The pieces
that weigh above or below the stand-
ard mark are kept separate. The
condemned are rolled out and sent
back to the melting pot. < >wing to the
greater tolerance (one and a half
grains) on silver the blanks are
rolled close enough to eliminate all
weighing, but niter coinage the
pieces are weighed the same as gold.

After weighing and separating the
coin is counted by weight and placed
in sacks: the gold in $5,000.00 pack-
ages and the silver in $1,000.00 pack-
ages, and delivered to the superin-
tendent, -w ho places it in vaults sub-

316

OT'R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

jeer to orders from the Treasurer.
Assistant Treasurers and banks. All
metals are delivered to the superin-
tendent by weight as well as value.
Cold and silver coin and bullion are
received and delivered at 1,000 Hue
ounces and minor metals and coin
at troy ounces. At the end of the
fiscal year, i.e., June 30th, the total
weight of all the ingots delivered
to the coining department by the
superintendent during the year
stands charged against said depart-
ment and the total weight of all the
good coin, condemned coin, clippings,
sweeps, etc.. that have been deliv-
ered back by the coining department
to the superintendent are placed to
the credit of the coining department.
Theoretically, this is supposed to
balance, but if it does not the super-
intendent of the coining department
will be held responsible for the short-
age. However, in practice, the law
recognizes the utter impossibility of
putting such an enormous quantity
of metal through all the different
operations without a certain amount
of loss or wastage, and tins legal
allowance on gold is 1/2000 part, or
for every 2,000 ounces operated upon
one ounce may be lost in wastage
before the coining department is
held responsible. < >n the same
amount in silver the legal allowance
would be two ounces.

The actual wastage in the coining

depart nt under the new system of

cleaning does not average more than
live per cent of the legal allowance
in gold and ten per cent in silver.
Inning the fiscal year ended June
30, 1913, the Mint at Philadelphia
coined $19,678,227.50 in gold and the
loss or wastage on this amount was
14.289 ounces, of the value of $284.12,
and $1,936,199.75 in silver coin on
which there was a loss or wastage
of 22.05 ounces, of the value of
$12.24, or a total value of $296.36
in gold and silver. This loss covers
the workings of an entire year of
$21,614,427.25. The legal percentage
of wastage to the amount operated
upon was gold, 1.37, and silver, 1.84.

The precautions to guard against

any possible loss bj carelessness on
the pari of the employees during
the process of manufacture art'
about as near perfect as human in-
genuity can devise. At the opening
of the day. the metal is weighed and
Charged to the various departments
and a settlement of the same is made
each day before the close of work.
In the morning the entire weight of
the metal that stands charged to the
coining department on the superin-
tendent's books constitutes the coin-
ing department's opening balance.
Every ounce of metal that is dis-
tributed among tin' various depart-
ments is charged to that department,
and at the close of business for the
day is weighed, and. if found cor-
rect, the account with the various
departments is closed and the metal
locked in the vaults. A detailed
statement of the workings of each
department, showing the amount
operated upon, finished and unfin-
ished, together with loss and wast-
age, is sent to the office of the super-
intendent of the coining department,
where a tabulated record is kept
from day to day. It shows by the
size of the operation if the loss ex-
ceeds the legitimate loss in any one
department by even less than one
piece. If the loss is excessive, then
the employees in that department
are kept until the shortage is ac-
counted for. or t'ne error in calcula-
tion discovered. It generally hap-
pens to be an error in figures, or a
coin or box of coin had been over-
looked. <>n the whole it is rare for
the question to arise. Once in a
while in an extraordinarily large op-
eration there might be a Legitimate
loss equal to the weigh! of a single
piece in excess of the estimate of
what the loss should be. and this
would remain unaccounted for ex-
cept as legitimate loss. It would be
out of the question for any consider-
able theft to be committed or even
to conduct a systematic pilfering on
a small scale without the culprit be-
ing discovered in a short time. The

318

OUR COl NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

daily record of the day's workings
kept in the superintendent of the
coining department's office shows the
loss <>r wastage on every operation.

The scales used for the weighing
of bullion, coin, and metals will
weigh from 1/100 part of an ounce
up to 10,000 ounces at each draft.

When the coin is finished and
counted it is delivered daily to the
superintendent in sacks containing
$5,000 in gold and $1,000 in silver
in amounts that may have been
coined the day previous. Out of
every delivery of finished coin to
the superintendent, there is taken at
random by the assayer and superin-
tendent one piece for each 1,000
pieces of gold, and one piece from
each 2,000 pieces of silver, which
are locked in what is known as the
"pyx box," the superintendent or his
representative holding the key to one
combination, and the assayer the
key to the other combination. Each
year in February as assay commis-
sion, consisting of twelve or fifteen
leading and representative citizens
from all parts of the United States.
the Judge of the United States Dis-
trict Court, Comptroller of the Cur-
rency, and the Assayer of the United
States Assay Office in New York,
are appointed by the President. The
last named are ex-offlcio members of
the Commission. He selects men
who are expert chemists, scale mak-
ers, ruin specialists, financiers, pro-
fessors and lawyers. They meet at
the Mint in Philadelphia, organize
themselves into committees on count-
ing, weighing and assaying and
these committees open the "pyx box,"
count, weigh and assay a large num-
ber of the coins and report the re-
sult to the President. In case any
of these coins are found outside the
legal limit of weight or fineness, it
would be sufficient grounds for the
removal of the operative officer or
officers.

Prior to the delivery of coin to
the superintendent and before the
assay pieces are taken out, the lat-
ter, by the trial separately of not

less than five pieces for each 1,000
pieces embraced in the proposed de-
livery, must satisfy himself that the
coins are within the legal limits as
to the weight. If these trial pieces
prove satisfactory the delivery is
made, and if not satisfactory all the
coins are weighed separately and
such as are not of legal weight are
defaced and delivered to the super-
intendent of the melting and refin-
ing department. As an additional
precaution, from the first and two
subsequent deliveries in each week
of gold and silver coins of each de-
nomination of coin delivered by the
coining department two specimen
pieces are taken at random, certified
and enclosed by the superintendent
and assayer i in the same manner
as above prescribed for the Annual
Assay Commission), and promptly
forwarded to the director of the
mint by registered mail for assay by
the assayer of the Bureau of the
Mint.

Metals required for the manufac-
ture of minor coins, that is. five cent
nickel and one cent bronze pieces,
are purchased by the superintendent
of the mint, with the approval of
the director of the mint as to price.
terms and quantity, after public ad-
vertisement, as provided by law.
The metal so purchased is delivered
to the melting department where it
is converted into ingots 23 inches
long, Us inches wide, and % of
an inch thick of legal alloy. The
live cent piece, or nickel, contains
7-"> per cent of copper and 25 per
cent of nickel, and the one ceiii
bronze piece contains P.". per cent of
copper and 5 per cent of zinc and
tin. These ingots are delivered to
the coining department, where they
are passed through heavy sixteen-
Inch lolls and reduced in the thick-
ness of the COin. About fifteen
passes are required to make this
reduction. Starting with the ingol
23 baches long, the strip is rolled
fifteen feet and then cut in two.
Each of these strips will he 1 1' feel
long when finished, The strips are

UNCLE SAM'S MONEY

319

then put through the cutting ma-
chines, where six blanks of bronze,
or five blanks of nickel are punched
out. These presses make 170 revo-
lutions per minute and in that time
punch 1,020 bronze blanks, or 850
nickel blanks. These blanks are
passed through rotary annealing fur-
naces in order to make them soft
and malleable before stamping.
From the annealing furnace they
are placed in tumbling barrels for
the purpose of cleaning and bright-
ening, and rolled in a solution of
our own devising for about half an
hour. Xo acid is used. After tumb-
ling, or rolling the blanks are thor-
oughly washed and then dried in
centrifugal machines. No sawdust
is used in this operation. The blanks
are selected and milled. The fin-
ished blanks, or planchets are taken
to the coining room, where they are
stamped and inspected, after which
they are counted and placed in
sacks. The nickel sacks hold $50
and the bronze $10. They are now
ready for delivery. No pyx or
special assay coins are taken from
the minor coin. The tolerance on
these pieces being much greater than
on gold and silver, no adjusting is
required.

A separate plant for the minor
coinage, remote from that used in
the coining of precious metals, has
recently been fitted up in another
part of the building. This plant is
equipped with heavy machineiy, and
is capable of turning out a greater
percentage of coin at less expense.

A separate plant also adjoins the
minor coinage plant. It is known
as the medal room. It is equipped
with four of the latest improved hy-
draulic presses and other suitable
machinery and appliances for the
manufacture of medals and proof
coin Here are made gold, silver
and bronze medals for the Govern-
ment and private parties. Gold and
silver medals are made from fine
gold and silver.

All dies used in this and the other
United States mints are made in

the engraving department of this
mint. All dated dies and all other
coinage dies which have been in use
are destroyed at the end of the cal-
endar year. The engraver is the
custodian of all dies.

The operative officers in their ac-
counts with the superintendent are
charged and credited with deliveries
of bullion or coin by weight and the
account kept in fine ounces. Troy
weights are used, while metric
weights are by law assigned to the
half, quarter dollar, and dime,
15.432 grains being considered as
the equivalent of a gramme.

The average cost for minting the
different denominations, as shown
by the cost report for the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1913. is as follows :

Per M
pieces.

Double-eagles ."537.42

Eagles 13.13

Half-eagles 11.50

Quarter-eagles 10.24

Half-dollars S.17

Quarter-dollars 0.80

Dimes 2.09

5-cent nickels 2.85

1-cent bronze 1.48

The above figures include the cost
of ingot assays, ingot melting, the
entire coining department and all of
the superintendent's department net
expenditures.

During the year all sweeps, rags
used in cleaning machinery, wash
water, etc., are gathered and placed
in a large iron vessel, the water
evaporated and the residue burnt.
After being dried the residue is taken
to the sweep cellar where it is passed
through a jaw crusher which re-
duces the sweeps to one inch or less
in diameter, then through a mill
with sixty mesh screens which grinds
the sweeps under water until they
are fine enough to pass through the
screen to the two settling tanks and
a steam drier. The type of mill is
a standard mining machine where
the rolls and the pan remain sta-
tionary. It is of sufficient size to
make it unnecessary to keep the mill
in continuous operation and thus the
men are available in other places.

::•_•"

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

I EG \I. WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE UNITED STATES.
THEIR DIAMETER AND THICKNESS

Legal Weight

Fineness

Diameter

Thickness

Thousandths

Inches

Inches

Grains Troy (J/.s.

GOLD:

Double eagle

516 1.075

9(H)

1.3.50

0.096

258 -~>:<,7r,

'.too

1.060

.080

Half eagle

129 .26875

900

vis

.065

Quarter eagle

64.5 .134:i7.->

900

.700

.050

SILVER:

Half dollar

192.9 .401875

900

1.205

.082

Quarter dollar

96.45 | .200937

900

.955

.065

Dime

38 58 .080375

900

.705

.051

MINOR:

Five cents

77.16 .16075

75 per cent copper
25 per cent nickel

.835

.078

( >ne <vnt

48 .1

95 per cent copper
5 per cent tin and
zinc

.750

.058

The drier constantly agitates the
wet swoops, so that they cannot hake
on the bottom. One settling tank is
directly above the other and the
lower contains a steam syphon which
lifts the water to the upper. From
the upper tank a connection leads
the water back to the mill so that
it may bo used over again. After
being thoroughly dried the sweeps
are barreled, samples taken there-
from and assayed. Afterwards they
are sold to the highest bidder.

During the ten years ended June
30, 1913, this mint coined $362,824,-
125.00 in regular domestic gold coin.
*t;o.(ir.'.t.n<i in Lewis and Clark gold
dollars, and 81 1,953,488.38 in foreign
(Mexican) gold coin, $7,041,294.65
in foreign silver and minor coin.
$41,185,228.95 in domestic silver coin,
and $24,477,958.2:1 in live cent and
one cent pieces, making a total coin-
age of $450,542,164.19, or 1,547,-
431,704 pieces. Upon this larjre coin-
age the wastage or loss was gold,
$18,491.93; silver. $12,129.15, and
live and one cent pieces $4,346.22,
a total of $34,967.30. The average
coinage per year was $45,049,441.60
and tlic average loss or wastage was
$3,496.73.

Since the elimination of acid for
cleaning purposes and the introduc-
tion of the new Cleaning method the
wastage has been reduced one-half.
The last three years show a very

small wastage compared with for
mer years.

During the last two years the
coinage of gold and silver has fallen
off considerably: the former due to
the passage of an act authorizing
the issuing of gold cert ideates on
gold bars instead of the coin as here-
tofore, and the latter owing to a
large surplus of subsidiary coin in
the vaults id' the Treasury and sub-
treasuries. On the other hand, the
demand for minor coins has in-
creased. This, no doubt, was due
to the change in design of the live
and one cent pieces.

A complete system of cost-keeping
shows the cost of each process in
coinage operations per ounce of
metal handled, and per dollar of
product: calculations are made
monthly and a statement of the same
made.

If the seigniorage on silver and
minor coin is taken into considera-
tion, it will show that this mint is
the largest money making institu-
tion in the Government service. As.
for instance, a troy pound of copper
will yield $1.20 and a troy pound
of nickel $3.75. The copper and
nickel cost approximately 3"» cents
Iter pound for the former and 38
cents for the latter. The tin and
zinc for alloying will be added to
the copper, silver can be purchased
for about CO cents per ounce.

CHAPTER XXV.
HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE

By A. II. PEARSON

PERSONAL liberty in the United
States is so complete that we
scarcely realize there is a pow-
erful central government to watch
over our destinies and make us com-
port ourselves with proper regard for
the rights of citizens in our neigh-
boring States. Frequently, an Amer-
ican's first real contact with Federal
power comes on his return from a
trip abroad, when he is advised that
he must pay duty on goods that he
has brought with him. He may have
looked with contempt on the poor
foreigner who must submit to the
pettifoggery of an officious govern-
ment, and he may be returning with
a smug "better-than-thou" attitude,
only to receive a rude shock to his
complacency as the customs officials

board the vessel and make him swear
out a statement of his dutiable per-
sonal effects. Then, no matter if he
does consider it an invasion of his
rights as a freeborn American citi-
zen, he must submit to having his
trunk opened, and searched more or
less perfunctorily, to make sure that
he has not perjured himself. He
may even be called aside to answer
searching questions about a certain
piece of jewelry. Now, how did Eli-
de Sam know that he had that
trinket? For the first time he is
aware of a spy system, not unlike
that of Russia, which reaches out
beyond our shores to foreign lands
and keeps track of the purchases of
the American tourists. Despite the
humiliation of being treated as a

CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONS OF DRY GOODS AT THE APPRAISER'S STORES
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

322

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

iiu Minn .11

> 1

PL1> ■* i. ' WSJ

p ,3W»,t

^K « -■ ;■£.•**■■ !Sk_-,

Pi

^^

1

ALL CUBAN LEAF TOBACCO MUST BE MINUTELY EXAMINED

smuggler, he cannot help but feel
a great respect for the omniscience
of a government whose existence he
barely realized up to that moment.

Although examination of travel-
ers' baggage is the most troublesome
work that the Custom House has to
deal with, it is a paltry business
compared with the collection of tin-
ties on general merchandise. De-
spite the far greater attention to per-
sonal baggage, smuggling still con-
tinues anion- tourists, especially
those of the gentler sex. who display

remarkable ingenuity in concealing

their dutiable goods. One customs
official hopelessly admitted that
•■women are borh smugglers, and we
cannot hope ever to suppress them."
As for general merchandise, the
opportunities for smuggling are so
remote, the co-operation between the
Government and the importers them-
selves is so complete, and the pen-
alty for smuggling is so severe as
compared with the reward it offers,
that practically no goods enter the
country without paying duty. Take

STAMPING BOXES OF IMPORTED CIGARS AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN THOROUGHLY

INSPECTED

:;im

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

diamonds, for instance, which one
would suppose could very readily be
introduced into the country because
their value per size i^ so enormous.
Not only does the Governmenl keep
track of purchasers of diamonds
abroad, hut the dealers do as well,
and they are constantly on the look-
out for smuggled stones, realizin:.'
that it is to their own interest to
report any stones introduced without
paying the required tariff. Further-
more, to make it unprofitable to
siuu^'lc the stones into the country,
the tariff on them was reduced sev-
eral years ago from 25 per cent to
10 per cent.

Some idea of the enormous amount
of work involved in keeping track of
the goods that enter this country
may he obtained by a visit to the
Appraisers' Stores on the lower west
side of New York. The building is
ten stories high and takes up an
entire block, while across the street
is an annex of no mean size. In
these buildings at least 10 per cent
of everything that comes into New
York from foreign ports must be
examined. A sample of literally
everything under the sun rinds its
way at one time or another into the
Stores, and no matter what its char-
acter may he. whether a fifty-karat
diamond or a penny doll, it must be
gravely considered and its value ac-
curately and scientifically determ-
ined, so that the proper custom duty
may he levied thereon. To handle
this enormous quantity of material
engages the attention of U'.'.s men. of
whom 134 are examiners. The du-
ties of the examiner are exceedingly
difficult. Each man has a certain
classification assigned to him. and
he must he prepared t<> determine
the wholesale value of any of the
various articles that might turn up
under that classification. He must
he able to tell of just what material
or materials the article was made,
how much the materials were worth
in the market from which they came,
and just what was the value of the

labor which was expended upon it.

Not only that, hut he must know the
market values of the materials and
labor at the time of shipment. This
must he determined on his own
knowledge ami not on the word of
the shipper. He cannot depend on

anyone else, hut must stand on his
own statement, which he must he
ready to hack up with incontestable
evidence in case the importer carries
an appeal to a higher court. He

Weighing Cotton Yarn Inside an Oven for
Customs Determinations

must he able to detect all the tricks
with which unscrupulous manufac-
turers delude the ignorant public.
For instance, in the textiles depart-
ment, the examiner must he able
to tell whether a piece of goods eon
tains cotton, linen, or silk, and in
what proportion. Saving determ-
ined this, he must know the quality
of the material used in making it up.
If it is of silk, he must determine
whether the silk is artificial or natu-
ral. If natural, what kind of silk,
and where it came from. If he is
in doubt about the matter, he refers
a sample to the laboratory, where

HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE

:\25

An Up-to-Date Smuggler's Vest Has Thirty-
six Pockets

the fabric is subjected to a chemical
test in order to determine accurately
what its composition may be. Natu-
rally, an examiner acquires before
long such an experience as to qualify
him as an expert, an experience that
it is impossible to obtain anywhere
else.

Recently, curiosities, works of art,
and antiques, over a hundred years
old, have been admitted free of duty.

The examiner who has to appraise

the work of artists has an exceed-
ingly difficult task. In many cases
it is not at all easy to distinguish
between spurious and genuine old
masters. The work of these exam-
iners is of undeniable value to the
country in preventing the importa-
tion of counterfeits.

Similar protection against fraud
is found in the case of tea. No duty
is levied on tea. but all tea must
be examined for purity before being
admitted into the country. In the
tea room of the New York Apprais-
ers' Stores a hundred thousand sam-
ples of tea must be tested per year.
One of the photographs shows the
manner of testing. Each cup con-
tains a different sample of tea iden-
tified by a number marked on the
bottom of the cup, and one of the
cups contains a standard sample.
Which one it is the examiner does
not know, for the identification of
this sample also is marked on the
bottom of the cup. The examiner
then proceeds to arrange the cups
according to the color and taste of
the tea. After the grading is done
the samples are thrown away and
the cups turned upside down to
show the identifying numbers. All
the samples on one side of the stand-
ard are passed as good tea, while
those on the other side are rejected.
To make sure that no error has been
made the test is repeated with a
second set of samples. In order to

SMUGGLING DUTIABLE GOODS IN BOOKS

326

OUR COUNTRY AM > ITS RESOURCES

detect any pigment used in the tea
the leaves are mashed on a piece of
white paper, and then the paper is

examined with a microscope for faint
spots of coloring matter. The tests
are very rigid and thorough, and the
Tinted States may pride itself on
having nothing but pure tea to drink.

Perhaps the must tedious wort at
the St i ires is the testing of sugar.
The tariff on sugar depends on the
proportion (if cane sugar the samples
contain. This is determined accur-
ately by means of a polariscope,
which analyzes the liu'ht that passes
through samples of the sugar syrup.
In the case of sugar only samples
are brought to the Stores, and as
a check upon the examiner, two sam-
ples out of each barrel are given
him. Each sample hears its own
number, hut the examiners have no
means of determining which two
came out of the same barrel. Never-
theless, his work must he so accu-
rate that when like samples are
paired again the readings will lie
practically identical.

The laboratories <d the Stores are
also kept busy with quantitative an-

alyses of various chemical product-.
particularly in the search for alco-
hols in medicines, etc. There is
also a section devoted to metallurgi-
cal analyses.

Obviously it would be impossible
to examine every article imported
into the country, and so it is the
practice to bring at least ten per
cent of a shipment to the Stores.
If the shipment consists of but one

or two cases of g 1< at least one

case must be examined. The cases
that go to the Stores are picked out
at random by the examiner. He
Compares the contents of the case
with the invoice and then investi-
gates one of the articles under the
invoice minutely in order to deter-
mine its quality. If this tallies with
the specifications the case is passed.
In the case of leaf tobacco, every
package must be opened, in order
to determine whether the leaves
are good enough to be used for
wrappers, which must carry a duty
of one dollar and eighty-five cents
per pound, or whether they are fit
only for tillers, which pay thirty-
live cents duty.

&9 ftjdlw \L

7

TESTING THE COLOR AND STRENGTH Of TEA

CHAPTER XXVI.

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

ALASKA, 1867

ALASKA is a gigantic headland
thrusting itself out from the
extreme northwest corner of
the American continent, with the
waves of the Arctic Ocean washing
its northern and western shores, and
the racific bounding it on the south ;
only the narrow Bering Strait sep-
arates it from Siberia, while to the
east lies Yukon Territory and Brit-
ish Columbia. About a third of its
area is within the Arctic Circle. We
purchased Alaska from Russia in
1867 for $7,200,000; for a long time

we neglected its possibilities, and
the revenue from it was small, but
since 1S67, and mostly within the
past sixteen years, its utilized min-
erals, fish and furs have reached the
enormous value of some $600,000,000,
or more than eighty times its pur-
chase price. About half this return
must be credited to minerals, chiefly
to gold, while fisheries and furs pro-
vide the other half. Of course there
have been large administration ex-
penses, but these probably do not
exceed $50,000,000.

180

ITO 160 150 140

vi

160

ino

140

SOME OF THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ALASKA
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

328

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Alaska's 590,844 square miles,
which we acquired for one and three-
quarters cents an acre, give her al-
most three times the area of France,
and more than double that of Texas.
This area falls into four natural
divisions: the Arctic Slope region,
with a maximum elevation of 3,000
feet; the Central Plateau. ::.000 to
5,000 feet; the Rocky Mountain
system, entering from Yukon and
stretching across the country in a
northeasterly direction: and the Pa-
cific system, including the Alaskan,
St. Elias, and "Panhandle"' ranges,
with such peaks as Mt. Crillon, !">.-
JHX) feet, the active volcano Mt.
Wrangell, 17,500 feet, Mt. St. Elias,
18,024 feet, and Mt. McKinley, tow-
ering to the height of 20,300 feet,
and taking rank as the highest on
United states soil, and the thirteenth
highest in the world.

The greatest river system of
Alaska is that of the Yukon and its
tributaries, the Koyukuk and the
Tanana. This system provides 3,000
miles of navigable water. The
Kuskokwim, another important riv-
er, is navigable for GOO miles. There
are several fine lakes, among them
the 160-mile reach of Nikhkak, in
the rugged Sitka n district.

The climate is milder than might
be expected from the high latitude.
The interior, of course, presents rig-
orous conditions, but the coastal re-
gions of the Pacific are beneficially
affected by a warm current similar
to that of the Gulf Stream. These
regions have a copious rain-fall: at
Sitka the average is 80 inches, com-
pared with 44.6 inches for New York
City.

The old belief that Alaska could
never have any real agricultural
value is disappearing. The Govern-
liient experimental work. I'm- which
the main station is at Sitka, has re-
sulted in producing at Coldfoot, go
miles north of the Arctic Circle, s-
incl cucumbers, 19 inch rhubarb, 1
inch potatoes, and 8-pound cabbages.
Lettuce is especially crisp and de-
licious, and turnips of - I qualit)

attain a weight of It; pounds. Along
the coast, seaweed and lish guano
make excellent fertilizers. Here the
heavy rains prevent grain from be-
ing raised, except for forage; but
in the interior, and particularly at
Rampart, very satisfactory results
have been obtained. Of the capital
cities of the United States, 31 record
as low degrees of temperature as
Sitka, and 4 are colder than Valdez,
while the winter of Juneau is usu-
ally milder than that of Washing-
ton. I». C. Roses, lilacs, and Eng-
lish ivy thrive in the neighborhood
of Seward, and southeastern Alaska
boasts fifty species of birds, among
them the song sparrow and the her-
mit thrush.

Juneau, the capital, with its quaint
shops and its streets that terrace to
the water, is picturesque and lively.
It has good schools, churches, clubs,
and hospitals, a library, a theater,
a chamber of commerce, and news-
papers. Fine lawns and well-fur-
nished homes are not lacking, and
the town is equipped with a good
water supply and electric light.

Some 27,000,000 acres of the Ter-
ritory is covered by timber— cedar,
hemlock, spruce, and fir. Alaskan
cedar is admirable for shipbuilding,
cabinet work, and interior finish : it
is close-textured, and wonderfully
durable under exacting conditions.
and its odor is so suggestive of san-
dalwood that it has been shipped
to Japan, made into ornamental
boxes and fans, and sold as genuine
sandalwood.

Of the fishing industries, that of
salmon is of commanding import-
ance, the worth of the annual catch
may be roughly placed at $15,000,000.
In May. the "China boss" brings to
the canneries a horde of Chinese.
Japanese, South Americans, and
Filipinos. Men, women and little
children work at top speed during
the canning season, twelve and four-
teen hours a day and seven days a
week. Fish poisoning is common.
Housing conditions are unspeakably
bad. In catching salmon, there are

330

(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

no restrictions ns to method, and the
trap system menaces the life of the
Industry. The day's catch of one
fisherman, during a particularly
heavy "run." was 3,000 salmon. Na-
tives an- asking for remedial legis-
lation, the enforcement of the laws
governing restraint of trade, and the
regulation <»f child labor. Another
urgenl need of Alaska is more light-
houses along her dangerous coasts.
Alaska is under a Governor ap-
pointed by the President for a four-
year term. Since 1912 it has had a
Legislature of two Houses. The Ter-
ritory is in the Ninth Circuit of the
Supreme Court, with its four judi-
cial divisions at Juneau, Fairbanks,
Valdez, and Nome. Each division
elect-- two members for the Senate
and four for the House, the Senate

thus consisting of eight members

and the House of sixteen. One dele-
gate is sent to Congress from the
Territory.

Business licenses furnish most of
the revenue, which is approximately
$1,000,000. In 1! top there were 152
industrial establishments, with a
combined capital of $13,000,000, a
combined output valued at $11,-
130,000, and employing T.'l. IT'.i men.

Education is carried on by means
cf a hundred schools, enrolling, in
1913, <;..".(;:; children, and costing
$350,000 to support. These are
maintained partly by the Federal
Governmenl and partly by the muni-
cipalities.

In 101.°,. 400 miles of railroad were
in operation. In 1915J two routes
for a most important Government
railroad were before President Wil-
son. One was the Cordova-Fair-
banks route: the other was that
from Seward, on Resurrection Pay.
to Fairbanks, 471 miles inland along
the Tanana River. lie finally select-
ed the latter route, two reasons
probably influencing his choice.
First, a railroad from Seward al-
most to Knik already exists, and
was purchasable for the very rea-
sonable sum of $1,150,000; this re-
duces the length of the new work by
some hundred miles. Second, Se-
ward has probably the best harbor
and town site in Alaska. The new
road will cost $26,000,000, including
the construction of a branch from
Matanuska Junction to the Mata-
nuska coal field, one of the most
valuable fields of high-grade coal in
the Territory. The work is under
the direction of the Alaskan En-
gineering Commission, and will later
be exended to Yukon, thus opening
up the interior and its vast re-
sources.

According to the census of 1910,
the population id' Alaska was made
up of ::0.::47 white and 28,009 na-
tives, Asiatics, and negroes. The
natives are the Eskimo, or Innuit.
of the north and northeast, the Tin-
nehs, or Indians of the interior. tin-
Aleuts, or islanders, and the Tlingits
of the North Pacific coast.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. L898

Till: cluster of islands consti-
tuting the Territory of Hawaii
was formerly known as the
Sandwich [slands, and is found in
the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii.
the largesl and most southerly of
the group, emerges from the sea
about 1,300 miles north of the equa-
tor, and 2,200 miles from San Fran-
cisco. The discovery of these is-
lands is usually credited to ("apt.
Cook, in 177*. although an earlier
discovery is claimed by Spain.

American missionaries wore sent
there in 1820, and these men re-
duced the language to written form;
SOOn after this idolatry was abolished
by a decree of the ruler, Kamehame-
ha II. In 1844, the independence of
the islands was guaranteed by the
Fidted states. Great Britain, and
France. < >n August 12th, 1898, the
archipelago was transferred to the
Governmenl of the United states,
and on June 14th. 1!HK>, it was or-
ganized as a Territory.

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

331

The islands have au area of 6,449
square miles. Although they lie en-
tirely within the tropics, the heat
is moderated by the trade winds
that blow for nine months of the
year; clear skies and an equable
temperature characterize the cli-
mate and conduce to the healthful
conditions which prevail. The tem-
perature at Honolulu, the capital,
averages 71 deg. F. in December,
and less than 77 deg. F. in July.
The rainfall varies greatly, the
windward side of the islands re-
ceiving the most. At Hilo it may be
eighty inches or more, while at the
more sheltered Honolulu the aver-
age is probably within thirty-eight
inches annually. There are no hur-
ricanes of damaging violence, al-
though several high gales may be
expected in the course of the winter
season.

^

\OAHU

Honolulu "*' £—» — ^

„S>C£K

There are eight islands in the Ha-
waiian group, besides numerous
islets for the most part uninhabited.
Hawaii Island, the largest, contains
4,210 square miles, and the popula-
tion in 1910 was 55,382. Here
Mauna Loa, the largest volcano in
the world, looms 13,675 feet into the
air ; Mauna Kea slightly exceeds
this height, reaching 13,805 feet,
and ranking as the highest peak in
the Pacific Ocean. Mauna Loa is still
active, and sixteen miles away, in a
southerly direction, is Kilauea Hill,
which has the distinction of possess-
ing the largest active crater in the
world, nine miles in circumference,
with vertical sides 1,000 feet in
depth. The eastern coast is scarred

by ravines reaching a depth of 2,000
feet, through which eighty-live
streams pour their waters.

Northeast of Hawaii is Maui Is-
land, of 728 square miles, with a
population in 1910 of 28,623. It is
mountainous, and presents some pic-
turesque scenery. Its two main por-
tions are connected by a sandy isth-
mus that is but little above sea level.
The summit of Mount Haleakala
(10,032 feet) may be reached on
horseback ; the long, regular gradi-
ents make this feat comparatively
easy. At the summit is found the
largest extinct crater in the world.
The northwest coast possesses a
good harbor in Lahaina, with steam-
ers plying between that port and
Honolulu.

Molokai Island, not much more
than a third as large as Maui, is
occupied by a low mountain range,
and is popularly known as the site
of the leper settlement, where all
those affected by the disease are iso-
lated.

Oahu Island, with a population of
90,000 and an area of about 500
square miles, presents some of the
most charming, natural forma-
tions, combining mountains and ra-
vines, cascading waters, and rich
foliage and vegetation into pictures
wholly satisfying to the artistic eye.
Coral reefs girdle its coasts, and on
the southern shore is Honolulu, the
capital of the Territory, on a plain
formed by the upheaval of an old
coral reef.

Kauai Island possesses the most
fertile soil of any in the group, the
advanced decomposition of its lavas
showing that volcanic action has
been long extinct. It is roughly cir-
cular in shape, of an area of 547
square miles, and in 1910 the popu-
lation was 23,744. Twenty miles to
the southwest is the little island of
Niihau.

Cook found few animals in the
islands. There were dogs, rats and
hogs, and a day-flying bat. The
only reptile was a small lizard.
There are now cattle, sheep and
goats, and some deer. More than

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

fifty species of birds have been
found, but the Chinese turtle-dove
and the European house-sparrow

are the only birds frequenting the

towns.

The windward districts are quite
heavily forested. Sandalwood is
no longer obtainable, but the can-
dle-nut and the screw pine are char-
acteristic of the slopes and valleys.
while the cocoanut palm grows free-
ly on the coast. The soil is general-
ly very productive, and in lino there
were 4,.",r>0 farms, covering 2,590,600
acres, the land being valued at $78,-
000,000; the live stock upon them
was worth $4,300,000. The commer-
cial products include coffee, rice,
arrowroot, honey, bananas, sisal,
wool, hides, skins and .tallow, rub-
ber, cotton, and tobacco, but sugar
and tropical fruits are the chief ex-
ports. On the sugar plantations
the growing use of irrigation canals
is resulting in increased crops; that
of 1914 was 618,000 tons, and the
yield is from two to seven tons to
the acre, depending upon location.
The industrial establishments of the
islands numbered, in 1910, 500. with
7. ."72 employees, and a combined
capital of $23,875,000; the material
used was valued at $12:3,0:29,000, the
output at $47,404,000.

Communication facilities are con-
stantly being improved. There is a
large and increasing mileage of
good roads, and more than .'500 miles
of railway. 240 miles of it being on
the islands of Hawaii and Oahu.
In Honolulu almost every house
has its telephone; there are 6,000
miles of wire on the live main is-
lands. The best harbors, after that
of Honolulu, are Pearl, on Oahu;
Hilo, on Hawaii; and Kahului. on
Maui. From these and the lesser
ports of the group, 436 vessels of a

total tonnage of 1,574,845 cleared

in 1915, and in the same year 156
vessels, of 1,605,925 tons, entered.
Inter-island transportation is pro
vided for by a licet of sixteen small
steamers. At Honolulu new wharves
have been constructed, and the larg-
est steamers can now he accommo-

dated. At Hilo and at Kahului
breakwaters have been built, and
the harbor of Kahului has been
deepened. The erection of light-
houses has progressed steadily.
Ten steamship lines touch at the
islands, from Canada, the United
States. the Philippines, China.
Japan, and Australia. Wireless
puts the islands into communication
with each other, with the Pacific
roast, and with vessels at sea, and
cables stretch to both shores of the
Pacific.

Upon formal annexation to the
United states, a Legislature of two
houses was established. Fifteen
members are elected for a four-year
term to the Senate, and thirty mem-
bers with two-year terms constitute
the House of Representatives. Once
in two years these bodies meet in
a sixty-day session. The President
of the United States appoints for
four years a Governor, at a salary
of $7,000, and a Secretary. A I tele-
gate is elected to the United States
Congress by popular vote. The ju-
diciary consists of a Supreme Court
and Circuit and District Courts; dis-
trict magistrates are appointed by
the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court; all other judges, including
those of a United States District
Court, are appointed by the1 Presi-
dent. There were nearly 8,000 con-
victions in 1915. mostly for minor
offenses.

There were 170 public schools in
19ir>. where 735 teachers gave in-
struction to -'.I 000 pupils, at a cost
of $772,000; besides this. $70,000
was expended upon new buildings.
These are free schools, and English

is the language in general use. In
addition, there are about fifty pri-
vate schools, with an enrollment of
7,7oo pupils. Industrial soh<M»ls for
both hoys and girls, a normal school.
a College of Agriculture and the Me-
chanic Arts, and a reformatory.
The enrollment records disclose the

fad that of all these pupils some
1 s.i 100 are Asiatics, S.000 are of
Hawaiian blood. 5,700 are Portu-
guese, and 1,403 American, the re-

Photos by the American Museum of Natural History

Natives Catching Fish
Objects of Culture

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

:::;i

mm; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

mainder being Germans and British.

In the Old "lays, the Hawaiian
was a coast dweller, having his
grass hut under the palms, and his
garden or small plantation on the
hill slopes. A little patch of kalo,
less than fifty feet square, provided
him with a year's sustenance. He
was a great fisherman, and there are
in existence lines made from fine
olona fiber which have seen a cen-
tury of service, and are still in good
condition. His huge sailing canoe
was a familiar sight to the Me-
lanesians. and the impression made
by his gigantic war canoe, carrying

pean costume: his fishing line, when
he condescends to fish, is of cheap
foreign manufacture, and much of
the fish he eats comes from the tin
can: the picturesque hut of grass
has been almost wholly replaced by
the shack of rude wood, and he is
on intimate terms with the slum
of the town. When Capt. Cook
found him. he was one of a proud
race 400.000 strong : to-day that race
has dwindled to less than 25,000, if
we exclude the 12,000 of mixed
hlood.

The modern Hawaiian has. how-
ever, retained many of the ehar-

G0VERNMENT BUILDING. HONOLULU

its hundred ruddy-skinned warrior-.
musl have been awe-inspiring. This
was in the days when the goddess
I'ele spoke from her volcanic throne,
and -Tele's hair." a sort of natural
mineral wool spun by the wind from
lava-drops, was found in the crev-
ices as substantial evidence of her

reality. All this lias passed. The
Hawaiian of to-dav affects Euro

acteristics that make him so attrae-
tive to ns. lie is still a fine speci-
men of physical humanity, ploasure-
Iovuil:. athletic, and musical in
voice and in temperament. His
guitar still holds tones that have
never been duplicated upon other
instruments or evoked by other lin-
gers. His women continue to weave
their flower garlands and bright

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

necklaces, and the dance has lost
none of its abandon.

There are in the islands 80,000
Japanese, 22,000 Chinese, and 22,000
Portuguese, and several thousand
Filipinos have been introduced.
Japanese, Chinese, and Korean im-
migration is now forbidden.

The census of 1910 gives the popu-
lation of Honolulu as 52,183, and
the entire population of the inhab-
ited islands is now estimated to be
322,856. Honolulu is in many as-
pects quite modern ; electricity lights
its streets and, operates its cars. It
has a Roman Catholic and an Angli-
can bishop, and ministers of several
other denominations. It has fine
parks, a water system, hotels, clubs,
newspapers, a hospital, a large
library, a museum, and several
large manufacturing establishments.

The Hawaiian National Guard is
a body of a thousand men, and mili-

tary works are in progress at va-
rious places in Oahu, including
fortifications, a naval station, and
a drydock at Pearl, on the island
of Oahu.

A direct property tax furnishes
most of the revenue of the Territory,
augmented by licenses and land
sales, road, school and poll taxes.
The assessed value of all property
in 1915 was $170,001,222, the annual
receipts from all sources were 82,-
796.140, and the expenditures $2,-
747,270 ; there is a bonded debt of
$7,S73,000. The exports of the Ter-
ritory were $62,464,759, the imports
$26,416,031, for the year ending
June 30th. 1915. Practically all the
export trade was with the United
States, as was 80 per cent of the
import trade. Raw sugar accounted
for $51,368,995 of the export figures,
refined sugar for $1,584,100, and
tropical fruits for $6,319,129.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1899

IN our East India possessions, the
Philippine and Sulu Islands, we
have a territory as large as the
United Kingdom, with a population
larger than that of Canada. To put
it more exactly, if less impressively,
the area of the archipelago is 121,-
400 square miles, and the population
is 9,000,000. The formation of the
group suggests a wish-bone, with the
largest and most northerly island,
Luzon, as the stem; Mindoro and
the long, narrow Palawan, with the
chain of islets between them, forms
the western fork of the bone; the
eastern fork is made up of Samar,
Panay, Negros and Mindanao, the
latter being the second largest and
the most southerly island of the
group. The islands and islets num-
ber altogether 3.141. The China Sea,
which washes the western coasts,
puts 500 miles of water between the
group and the continent of Asia.
The Sulu chain bridges the gap be-
tween Mindanao and Borneo, and
farther north the gap is again
bridged by the long arm of Palawan

and Balabac; these extensions en-
close the Sulu Sea ; to the south
rolls the Celebes Sea, and on the
east is the vast extent of the Pa-
cific, the first mainland encountered
in this direction being Central
America.

336

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

The Philippines were discovered
bj Magellan in 1521. Spain took
them i>\ conquesl in 1542, and held
ilicin for more than three centuries;
in; <>n the outbreak of the Spanish-
American War. Admiral Dewey,
commanding our Pacific fleet, de-
stroyed the Spanish warships in
Manila Hay on .May 1, 1898, and
Manila was taken by General Mer-
lin in the following August. The

Mi. Mayon, in Luzon, broke into
devastating activity; mild earth-
quake shucks are frequent, bul the
buildings are sn constructed as to
withstand fairly severe shucks The
islands are all mountainous, the gen-
eral trend ot the systems being north
and south. Mt. Apo 1 10,300 feel I
on Mindanao is the highest summit:
no other peaks exceed 9,000 feet.
Ihe longest river is the Cagayan,

PHILIPPINE SCENERY

Treaty of Paris i December 10, IS9S l
ceded the archipelago to the United
States. Then followed battles with
the native forces under Aguinaldo,
ending with Ins capture in .March.
1901.

< >f volcanic formation. I he Philip-
pines still ha\c twelve active \ol

cai s. In 1880 destructive earth

quakes were experienced; in 1S'.»T

which rises in the mountains of the
eastern coast of Luzon and traverses
the Island in a northerly direction
for 220 miles: other important
streams are the Cotobate and the
Agusan in Mindanao. The Laguna
de Bay, a fresh water lake, near
Manila, is thirtj miles long, and
numerous smaller lakes are scattered
throughout the islands. The archj-

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

331

pelago has a Longitudinal extent of
a thousand miles ; from northern
Luzon to southern Mindanao is as
far as from New York City to south-
ern Florida ; hence it is to be ex-
pected that climatic conditions vary
greatly in different portions of the
group. While the climate is, of
course, tropical, the heat is on the
whole more bearable than that en-
countered in many temperate coun-
tries. The seasons may be desig-
nated as hot, wet and cold. The hot
season (March to June) is at its
worst just before the southerly trade
winds begin to blow ; in the latter
part of this season violent thunder-
storms occur; from July and through
October the rain falls in torrents,
often registering- seventy inches for
the four months ; in Manila, seventy-
five inches is perhaps a fair annual
average. From November to March
is the so-called cold season, when
heavier garments are necessary to
comfort and a sense of invigoration
is born of the cloudless skies and
the cleansed air. The mean temper-
ature at Manila is, for the hot
season, about 87 degrees ; for the
wet season, 85 degrees, and for the
cold, 72 degrees.

The fauna of the islands is not
prodigal in mammals, but it offers
peculiarities that well repay the nat-
uralist. There are wild boar and
deer; monkeys are found every-
where, one species being a pure
white ; there is a lemur about the
size of a squirrel, which sleeps the
day through and seeks its food by
night, its long hind-legs propelling
it over the ground in frog-like leaps ;
there are two species of civet, and a
wild cat ; also porcupines, squirrels
and rats, and numerous species of
bats; lizards, alligators and turtles
are found, and some enormous mol-
luscs ; the shell of the tablobo has
been known to attain the weight of
two hundred pounds. The waters
provide both curious and valuable
fish. The usual domestic animals
are met with, and the buffalo is
used in the fields.

The forested area is extensive, and
is under the supervision of the
United States Forestry Bureau. It
offers a wonderful variety of tim-
ber, cabinet woods, palms, trees
yielding gums, spices and dyewoods,
and bamboo. No matter what par-
ticular quality or combination of
qualities may be sought to meet
special uses, a timber may readily
be found that will admirably serve
the purpose. Since the supply great-
ly exceeds any local demand that is
likely to arise, these forests consti-
tute a most valuable resource.
Three-fourths of the trees are of the
dipterocarp family, corresponding to
the conifers of our zone. From this
family may be obtained an abun-
dance of woods eminently suitable
for interior finish and for furniture,
and exhibiting a wide range of color
and texture. Tanguile and red
lauan closely resemble mahogany in
appearance. If hardness bo the qual-
ity sought, guipo and apitong may
be relied upon; they are extensively
used for flooring, and a still harder
wood used for this purpose is yacal ;
this latter is ideal for heavy con-
struction work, as are also ipil and
pagatpat ; these timbers make strong
and durable railroad ties. Should
we seek beautiful cabinet woods
there are many trees of the locust
family, among which may be found
colors and grainings to satisfy the
most exacting tastes ; the ipel is a
striking example in this class. Then
there are woods that lend themselves
to less common and even more diffi-
cult demands. Mancono and dungon
make the finest dumb-bells, bowling
balls and bearings. Calantas is an
excellent substitute for the Spanish
cedar used in cigar boxes. Ebony,
the highest priced of all Philippine
woods, has a wide distribution, but
the trees do not attain any great
size ; perfect pieces bring $300 a
thousand feet board measure.

The islands are far from poor in
minerals. In most of the larger ones
gold is found, and the crude work-
ings of the natives have now given

338

<>n: <<M*.\TRY AXI> ITS RESOURCES

place to an established industry that,
in 1913, produced oearly a million
dollars' worth of the precious metal.
Other minerals found in greater or
lev- quantities are silver, platinum,
mercury, lead and manganese; there
are several coal fields, iron exists in
various parts <>f the archipelago, cop-
per lias long been mined by the na-
tives for manufacture into utensils,
and there are evidences of sulphur.
petroleum, ruck salt, kaolin and
gypsum. In 1913 the value of all
minerals yielded up by the soil was
$1,972,290.

Dhe aborigines were probably Ne-
gritos, who were gradually forced
into the remoter natural strongholds
ii\ their Malayan invaders, until the
latter came to dominate the islands.
Of the present entire population of

9,000,000 nearly 8,000, t are Unman

Catholics; the Moros are Mohamme-
dans, and number perhaps 300,000;
the uncivilized, pagan tribes of the
mountains, scattered throughout the
islands, make up the remainder. It
will be seen that the non-Christian
and uncivilized elements can neither
singly nor together he taken as in
any way representative of the Fil-
ipino people. The -Malayan is the
dominant and representative stuck.
At the social functions of Manila one
meets highly educated men and
women in the conventional evening
dress, should we engage one of
these nun in conversation about his
country, he will tell us that writing
was common before the arrival of
the first Spanish monk, and that the
inhabitants were a highly moral peo-
ple at that time: that they have en-
joyed three centuries of civilization;
that at the time of the American
Occupation, l"> per cent of the Chris-
tians were literate: that there was
a university in the Philippines be-
fore Harvard was founded, and that
the Americans found on their com-
ing 1,674 public schools, and colleges

for both men and women in every
capital city of any importance; that
Luna had already achieved interna-
tional fame as an artist, and music

and poetry of a high order wore
written; and that the unusually fine
examples of WOOd-carving demon-
strate the artistry of the Filipino
craftsman. On the other hand, he
would not deny that American occu-
pation had increased the number of
public schools to more than i,000,
and had raised the literacy to 7."
per cent. There are now :!T educa-
tional divisions under direction of
the Secretary of Public Instruction,
with a public school enrollment of
500,000; there are normal and indus-
trial trade schools, and private

STATUE OF MAGELLAN IN PALACE AT
MANILA

schools enroll some 10,000 pupils.
The University of the Philippines.
maintained by the state, has col-
leges of Liberal Arts. Law. Medi-
cine and Surgery, Engineering, Fine
Arts, Veterinary Medicine and Agri-
culture, with 2,000 students.

Much thought has been L'iven to
the solution of the problem presented
by the Moros. With this in view, a
hundred miles of Moro country in

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

339

the island of Mindanao has been
organized into eight colonies, where
the mixed peoples live peacefully to-
gether, their children attending the
same schools. English is now the
official language of the archipelago.
The educated Filipino speaks sev-
eral languages and follows American
politics assiduously. The people are
in general, kind, hospitable and in-
telligent.

Agriculture is the chief industry,
in which one-half the workers are
engaged. More than 8,000,000 acres
are under cultivation, 3,000,000 acres
being devoted to rice. The principal
products are rice, Manila hemp,
copra, sugar, maize and tobacco. Ob-
solete methods and insufficient labor
account for the agricultural possi-
bilities being in a neglected state,
but our occupation is already accom-
plishing good results in this direc-
tion. All public schools have now
an elementary course in agriculture,
and a rural credit system is fur-

NATIVES OF JOLO SELLING FRUIT

thered by an Agricultural Bank bav-
ing twenty-six agencies. In 1914 the
outstanding loans of tins institution
aggregated nearly two millions of
dollars.

The 1915 imports amounted to
$44,479,861, the exports to $50,915,-
061. Abaca or Manila hemp stands
first on the export list with a value
of $19,000,000; copra next with a

value of $12,000,000, and sugar third
with a value of $!>. 712,757; cigars
and cigarettes accounted for $2,102,-
317, and all other tobacco for $1,-
5S9.67S. The value of the chief im-
ports was : Cotton goods, $9,069,247 :
rice, $5,448,301 ; steel and iron prod-
ucts, $3,993,984. Half the entire
trade of the islands is with the
United States.

The central government is vested
in a Governor-General, who is also
President of the Philippine Commis-
sion, assisted by eight commissioners,
four of whom are the executive
heads of departments known as In-
terior, Commerce and Police, Fi-
nance and Justice, and Public In-
struction. The commission consti-
tutes one house of the legislature, the
other is known as the Assembly, with
eighty-one members elected by limited
franchise for four years. Two Resi-
dent Commissioners, elected by the
Legislature, take their seats, but
without a vote, in the United States
House of Representatives. Political-
ly, the archipelago is divided into
thirty-six provinces and, in addition,
the Department of Mindanao and
Sulu, which is itself divided into
provinces and districts. Thirty-one
are known as regular, and the others
as special, provinces ; the first class
are governed by provincial boards
elected by the people; governors of
the special provinces are appointed
by the Governor-General and the
commission, acting in concert. Muni-
cipal officers are elected for terms
of four years by the voters ; about
nine hundred towns enjoy this auton-
omy. Each town has a justice of
the peace : in each of the twenty-six
judicial divisions the administration
of justice is under a judge of first
instance, with the exception of the
city of Manila, which constitutes the
ninth district or division, and to
which four judges are assigned.
There is also a supreme court. Be-
sides the municipal police, there is
what is known as the Philippines
Constabulary, with a strength of
about 350 officers and 5,000 men.

340

<HK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

The garrison of the islands has
10,000 American and 5,000 native
troops, ami a body known as the
Philippine scouts number about
5,000.

Customs duties and internal taxes
provide must of the revenue, which,
in I'M 4. was $11,912,763 : in the same
year the expenditures were $13,333,-
321, hut as at the beginning <>f the
year tin-re was a balance of $5,-
679,587. there was still on hand at
its conclusion $4,259,027. In 1014
the bonded debt was $16,125,000. Of
the expenditures for this year, more
than $5,000,000 was devoted to social
and public improvemeni and eco-
nomic- development.

Leprosy, smallpox, the bubonic
plague and cholera were formerly
prevalent in the islands. Radical
measures have been taken to stamp
out these diseases, and much progress
has been made. There are between
two and three thousand lepers iso-
lated in a colony on the island of
Culion. Intestinal diseases, which
ravaged the Philippines, have been
reduced by almost one-half: this re-
sult is attributed largely to the pure
water supply secured for Manila;
in the smaller towns this has been
accomplished by the drilling of hun-
dreds of artesian wells. If is as
yet hard to obtain accurate health
statistics except for .Manila; here
tin- birth rate is about 36, and the
death rate 25 or less, per thousand.

Manila has a population of 2T< '.-
("1(1; of these 1 T.HI II I are Chinese;
there are probably 6,000 Americans.
counting in the garrison, and 6,000
Europeans, two-thirds of them Span-
iards. Chinese Immigration to the
Philippines was orohibited in 1902,
and registration is required of
Chinese laborers. The number of
Chinese now on the islands is put
at ."II. lino, and the entire number of
whites i American and European) is
estimated to be 20,000. The savage
tribes of the mountains differ widely

in many respects, ami it is a mistake

tu call them all "Igorrotes." Even
the [gorrotes, filthy and barbarous

as they are. possess some good
traits. Although they live in moun-
tainous parts of the country they
cultivate the soil industriously, first
terracing the slopes, then laying out
their plots upon these terraces, irri-
gating them by canals that are con-
structed with no mean skill. They
are monogamists among whom di-
vorce is unknown, and by whom in-
fidelity is severely punished.

There is little manufacturing done
in the Philippines, hut pina fibers,
cotton and silk are woven into fab-
rics that are frequently attractive
and durable: baskets, cordage, pot-
tery, furniture, hats. mats, musical
instruments and carriages are also
made: but the only manufacturing
industry of note is that of cigars and
cigarettes: 305,000,000 cigars were
made on the islands in 1913, about
one-third of this output being con-
sumed in the country while the rest
was exported; and in the same year
4,500,000,000 cigarettes were pro-
duced, mostly for local consumption.

There are more than 5,000 miles
of good road in the Philippines, 1,800
miles being hard-surfaced road of
the first quality; permanent bridges
and culverts number nearly 6,000.
At the time of the American occu-
pation in 1898 there were but 120
miles of railway; this connected
Manila with Dagupan. There are
now 720 miles, with 212 miles more
planned, if not actually under con-
struction: bun miles are on I.n/.on.
72 on I'anay. and 60 on Cebu. The
islands have 5,300 miles of telegraph
lines and 1,173 miles of cables; 71111
post-offices handle the mail. The
postal revenue for 1914 was $380,-

942, and the telegraph revenue was

Si's;:.. '111.".. Money orders were sold to
the value of $8,272,858. Tin- tine
harbor at Manila will allow of the
entrance of vessels drawing thirty
feet of water, and next in importance
an- the harbors of Cebu and Hollo.
Cebu is a city of 60,000 population,
and lloilo has 50,000. The ports of

the Philippines in 1914 received for-
eign vessels to a tonnage of l, pi 2,750,

UNCLE HAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

§41

and the tonnage of foreign vessels
clearing was 1,931,249. The mercan-
tile marine consists of some 700 ves-
sels, about one-fourth of this fleet
being steam vessels, totaling 55,000
tons.

Four banks are established in the
Philippines. In 1904, after a trou-
blesome experience with the Mexican
dollar, the United States tried the
expedient of guaranteeing by gold
the Filipino peso, a coin worth fifty
cents in American money. Fluctua-
tions in value are thus avoided, and
the experiment has proved quite suc-
cessful. The postal savings bank has
now about 45,000 depositors, and the
total deposits are nearly 3,000,000
pesos.

The alertness of the Filipino, and
his eagerness to learn, have already
been touched upon. It should not,
then, surprise us that more than a
hundred newspapers are published
on Filipino soil. The predominating
language of the press is Spanish, but
no less than 27 of these newspapers
are in English, 33 are in native dia-

-7 i'<vi^-

1*1 -' Jfcfy

PHILIPPINE COFFEE PLANTATION

lects, and 3 are in Chinese. If fur-
ther promise of a Filipino rena-
scency is required, we may find it
in the quiet tribute of the Hon. John
Barrett, director-general of the Pan-
American Union, who, in favorably
comparing the Philippine Congress
with the Japanese Parliament, tinds
in it "a ministry of bright men, of
acknowledged ability as internation-
al lawyers."

PORTO RICO, 1899

PORTO RICO is the most east-
erly island of the Greater An-
tilles, in the West Indies ; it was
discovered by Columbus in 1493, and
was held by Spain until its capture
by the United States in 1S98. It is
100 miles long and about 40 miles
in width, except toward the eastern
end, which narrows considerably ;
the area is 3,436 square miles, and
it has, besides, several islands of
importance, of which the largest is
Vieques (100 square miles). Porto
Rico is 1,400 miles from New York
and less than 1,000 from Colon, Pan-
ama. It is wonderfully fertile and
presents a beautiful appearance.

A mountain range, with a maxi-
mum height of 3,800 feet, traverses
the island from west to east, and
there are 1,300 streams, of which
fifty may be termed rivers ; but none
are navigable for more than a mile
or two from the coast. The hilly
nature of the country causes tht

trade winds to precipitate their
moisture upon the northeastern low-
lands, where the average rainfall is
120 inches, while at San Juan, the
capital, it is but 55 inches. The
temperature varies between 50 de-
grees and 100 degrees.

Although there are 40.000 small
farms, valued in 1910 at more than
$102,000,000, and GO per cent of the
workers are on the soil, not much
more than one fourth of the land is
under cultivation. The lowlands
produce sugar, the hill slopes coffee
and tobacco; much of the latter, of
superior quality, is grown under
cloth. Other products are sea island
cotton, textile fibers, Indian corn,
sweet potatoes, rice, maize, plan-
tains and yams. Grapefruit, or-
anges, pineapples, coeoannts and
other tropical fruits flourish. Most
of the trade is with the United
States. The country south of the
mountain range is not so well

342

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

watered, but for this district there
is dow under construction an irri-
gation system, to cost $3,000,000,
winch will greatly increase the out-
1 mi nt' the island. Molasses and
honey are products of importance,
lull the Staples are sugar and eot'l'ee.
the former constituting 47 per cent
of all exported products. In 1914
320,633 tons of sugar, valued at
$20,240,335, - and 50,211,947 pounds
of coffee, valued at $8,193,544, were
shipped from Porto Rico.

Spanish cedar, ebony, rosewood,

Indian sandal w 1 and mahogany

are all found on the island, and the
Talauma, with its white, sweet-
scented flowers, furnishes a timber
locally known as "sabino." At least
twelve different plants are used in
dyeing and tanning, and the fruit
of the vijao, which grows in wild
luxuriance, is used by the natives
for ink and dyes, which are claimed
to be quite fast in color; the root
of the turmeric also yields a dye
used for hammocks, ribbons and
Cloth, and this may prove to have
commercial possibilities.

Porto Rico is poor in fauna ; the
passing of the armadillo and the
agouti has left only small rodents,
squirrels and a species of great
land turtle as representative of the
four-footed population. <»t' the few
reptiles, none are venomous. Doves
and various song birds frequent the
higher d i s t ricts; green parrots
abound in the forests; and water
birds, among them the gaudy flamin-
go, are found along the coasts. Both
salt-water and fresh-water lish are
caughl in considerable quantities.
Of the domestic animals, cattle are
raised in sufficient numbers to form
an industry worthy of DOte.

Little is known of the extent of
the mineral resources. Since much
alluvial gold was recovered by the
Spaniards, it is reasonable to infer
that rich veins await discovery in
the mountains. Copper, iron, tin.
bismuth, mercury, platinum, nickel
and coal have been found, and salt
is worked extensively. This latter
is the only mining enterprise upon
an established basis.

San Juan, the capital city, has a
good harbor with a fairly clear en-
trance: when improvements now
under way are completed the en-
trance will be (iOO yards wide, with
30 feet of water. The city had in
1910 a population of 50,000. with a
town hall, a cathedral, a general
hospital and a theater. Other towns
are Ponce, which had 03.444 popu-
lation, and Mayaguez, with a popu-
lation of 42.42!>. The island boasts
74 municipalities, each electing its
cwn mayor, city council and city
officials.

Porto Rico is administered by a
Governor and an Executive Coun-
cil, appointed by the President for a
four year term ; six heads of depart-
ments and live natives make up the
Council. The Legislative Assembly
is composed of two bodies, the Ex-
ecutive Council and a House of
Delegates; the seven electoral dis-
tricts each supply live members to
the House of Delegates. A Resident
Commissioner to the United States
is also elected by popular vote for
the term of two years; he takes his
seat in the Federal Congress. Enact-
ments of the Council and the House
are subject to the veto of the Gov-
ernor. The judiciary of the island
includes an Attorney Genera] with
his staff, a United States Court, and
a Supreme Court of live, all ap-
pointed by the President; the Gov-
ernor appoints fifty-nine justices of
the peace; seven Districl Judges are
appointed by the Governor, while
the people elect to oiiice the judges
and officials of thirty-four municipal
courts.

The educational system has been
much improved since Americans

UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

843

took charge of affairs. In 1S99
more than 83 per cent of the people
could neither read nor write. That
year saw the complete reorganiza-
tion of the school system, education
being made compulsory. The num-
ber of common schools has been in-
creased from less than 800 to more
than 4,300, with an enrollment of
207,010 in 1914. There are four
high and twenty-five continuation
schools, besides night schools, kin-
dergartens and private schools. At
Rio Piedras, a few miles from San
Juan, is situated the University of
Porto Rico, where students of both
sexes receive instruction in such
special subjects as teaching, science,
engineering, medicine, law, architec-
ture and agriculture ; the farm and
dairy of the University enable stu-
dents to master the practice as well
as the theory of agriculture, and in
this the Government experiment sta-
tion at Mayaguez offers its whole-
hearted and valuable co-operation.

In 1892 the island possessed 119
miles of railway. It now has more
than 220 miles. This links together
the towns of the western coast,
partly encircles the island, and to a
certain extent opens up the interior.
It is intended to extend the present
facilities until there is a railroad
entirely around the island, and an-
other project is the running of a
new line across the island, with
many branches and ramifications.
There are a thousand miles of tol-
erable roads in Porto Rico, 600 miles
of postal telegraph wire, govern-
ment owned, forty telegraph stations
and 80 post offices. The telephone
is also winning its way into business
and social demand.

The population was estimated for
1914 at 1,184,489, an increase over
1910 of 6G,477. Of this population,
less than 50,000 are negroes, some
340,000 are mulattoes, and the rest
are whites. Almost nothing is
known of the original inhabitants ;
a few of their stone weapons, im-
plements and images, with some
earthenware fragments, have been
found, and are now preserved in the

Smithsonian Institution; and at
Gurabo, on the Rio Grande de Loiza,
may be seen a sort of monument
roughly hewn in stone and bearing
a number of mystifying designs.

The revenues of Porto Rico come
from customs and excise, from the
tax on property, an inheritance tax

FIRST FLAG RAISING IN PORTO RICO

and various fees and licenses. The
receipts from these sources for the
year ending July 1st. 1914, were
$10,108,708 : the property had an
assessed value of $179,271,023. The
police force numbered about 700 men
and the military forces about 600.

The industries of Porto Rico arc
chiefly concerned with the produc-
tion of embroideries, drawn work
and hats. In 1910 there were 989
industrial establishments; their
combined capital was placed at $25,-
544,385, and their output at $36,-
749,742. These establishments em-
ployed 15,582 work people. The
tonnage of American and foreign
vessels clearing from Porto Rican
ports during the year ending July
1st, 1914, was 1,216,909. The island
is a port of call for thirteen steam-
ship lines. In 1914 the imports were
valued at $80,406,787 and the ex-
ports at $43,102,762. In 1915 the
exports to the United States alone
reached a value of $43,311,920.

:;n

mi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

GUAM, 1899

GUAM, the largest and most
southerly island of the Ladrone
group, the rest of which belongs
i<i Germany, lies in the North Pacific
Ocean, nearly 1,500 miles east of the
Philippines. It was discovered by
Magellan in 1521, was held by Spain
from 1688 to 1898, and was captured
by the U. S. cruiser "Charleston"
during our war with Spain, The
island is 29 miles long, from .'! to 10
miles in width, and its area is 210
square miles. The northern part
presents the appearance of a large
plateau, while the southern portion
is hilly, attaining a beight of 1,280
feet.

The vegetation is luxuriant, and
soil and climate are admirably suit-
ed to agriculture, but the laziness
of the natives lias prevented any
extensive development of this pur-
suit. October to May is the dry sea-
son, although rain not infrequently
falls. The temperature is even,
with August and September the hot-
test months, the yearly mean tem-
perature being about 81 deg. Fahr.
Guam is occasionally visited by dev-
astating typhoons and earthquake
shocks are not uncommon. Trade
winds moderate the heat and condi-
tions are generally milder than in
the Philippines.
The valleys are forestrated with

valuable hardwoods. F 1 fruits

are the custard apple and sour sup,
the pineapple and the cocoanut :
breadfruil ami bananas grow freely.
The hau produces very strong and
durable rope; the leaves of the pan-
danus are used in braiding hats and

mats; the ylang-ylang is well known
for the perfume it yields. Among
the vegetable products are rice,
maize, sugar, cotton, indigo, castor
oil and tobacco.

About the only native animals are
small rodents, hut the roe and the
wild goat thrive, as do swine and
oxen. There are no venomous
snakes and the scorpions and centi-
pedes are not dangerous.

The population of Guam is esti-
mated at 13,000; the inhabitants are
for the most part Chamorros with a
mixture of Tagal, Malay and Span-
ish hi 1. speaking a Malay-Spanish

dialect, hut English is rapidly gain-
ing ground. The American occupa-
tion is raising native standards.
The lepers have been segregated,
telegraphic communication has been
improved, public schools established
and a good hospital maintained.
There is a Government agricultural
experiment station at Agafia, the
capital, which has paved streets,
sewers and a water system and is
connected with Apra, the only safe
harbor, by a \tj<-y good road.

The commandant of the naval sta-
tion acts as Governor. The island
has four administrative district-;.
each with a commissioner as its
executive head. Peonage has been
hed and courts of justice estab-
lished. The 1914 imports were val-
l* d at $160,000 and the exports at
$50,000. Guam is a port of transit
between the United states and the
Philippines and army transports call
there at frequent intervals, some-
times monthly.

SAMOAN ISLANDS, llillll

TI I E Samoan group is found in
the South Pacific Ocean, 120
miles northeasl of the Fiji
islands; named by Bougainville
"lies des Navigateurs," from the
natives' skill in handling their
canoes, it still appears on many
maps as Navigators' Islands. The
whole group numbers thirteen

islands, for the most part mere
rocky and barren Islets. By the
Tripartite Treaty of 1899, all those
easl of 171 deg. long, were turned
over to the United States, which
has had a naval and coaling station
there since 1872. Germany retained
possession of that portion of the
group lying to the west of this

UNCLE SAM'S NUN-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS

no

meridian. The United States pos-
sessions comprise Tutuila, with an
area of 77 square miles and a popu-
lation of 7,300; Ofu, Aunua and
Olosenga, having together an area
of some 25 square miles with ahout
2,000 population ; and Rose Island,
uninhabited.

Pagopago, the capital of American
Samoa, is on the south coast of
Tutuila : its fine harbor almost di-
vides the island into two parts.
Tutuila is the best island of the
entire group, of a mountainous char-
acter, but possessing extensive
forests.

The natives of the archipelago are
forbidden to sell land to thp whites,
but are permitted to retain their
own laws and customs in so far as
these do not conflict with the laws
and ordinances established by the
Governor, who is also the naval com-
mandant. He is authorized to ap-
point officers, regulate the police and
make ordinances dealing with such
matters as the assessment of taxes
and the importation of spirits. A
body of seventy-five men, under a
drill sergeant of the United States
Navy, constitutes a native guard.

The natives are of fine physique,
but are indolent and very independ-
ent, and the plantations have to be
worked by imported labor. Hook-
worm and the yaws are prevalent.
but a great deal has been done
toward the amelioration of these
diseases, and much attention is paid
to sanitation and the public health.

There are four religious missions,
with numerous sectarian schools;

besides these, there is one govern-
ment supported school and another
largely maintained by the native
population. The total number of
schools is 83, with 2,000 pupils of
both sexes.

The political divisions are three —
the Eastern, comprising eastern
Tutuila and Aunua ; the Western,
which is western Tutuila ; and the
District of Manna, taking in Tau
and its neighboring islets. Eaeh dis-
trict has its native Governor: under
him are the county chiefs, and under
them the chiefs of villages. Each
village has its own court.

TaKa°-T« yf— -«Ap,a

SAMOA

TUTUILA

1

MANUA IS

r2°

The products of American Samoa
include cocoanuts, cocoa beans,
bananas, breadfruit, pineapples, or-
anges, yams and taro. the last being
a plant with leaves similar to those
of the water-lily, with roots that are
baked and used as food. Some cot-
ton, maize, sugar and coffee are
raised for local consumption. Copra
(dried cocoanuts) and cocoa beans
are about the only things exported,
the output of copra running to 1,500
tons per annum ; this product is
largely used as legal payment for
taxes.

PANAMA CANAL ZONE, 1904

THE Panama Canal Zone, com-
prising 430 square miles of ter-
ritory, was acquired by pur-
chase, February 20, 1004. the sum of
$10,000,000 being paid to the Re-
public of Panama. In addition. Pan-
ama is to receive an annual pay-
ment of $250,000 during the life of
the treaty, beginning nine years
after date of ratification.

The Canal Zone begins at a point
three marine miles from mean low

water mark in each ocean and ex-
tends five miles on each side of the
center line of the route of the canal.
It includes the group of islands in
the Bay of Panama, named Perico.
Naos, Culebra and Flamenco. The
cities of Panama and Colon are ex-
cluded from the Zone, but the United
States has the right to enforce sani-
tary ordinances and maintain public
order there, in case the Republic of
Panama should not be able to do so.

PART II.

OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL
UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE

CHAPTER I.
THE AMERICAN FLAG

By ALBERT A. HOPKINS

AND

INSTRUCTOR H. C. WASHBURN

U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNArOLIS, MD.
FIRST PART BY THE EDITOR

FROM the earliest time the flag
has been of prime importance.
According to Livy the cav-
alry flag was a square piece
of textile material fixed to the
cross bar at the end of a spear.
The Roman standards were guarded

SHIELDS SHOWING HOW THE HERALDIC

COLORS ARE TRANSLATED INTO

BLACK AND WHITE

with the greatest care and venera-
tion, and were kept in the temples
of the great cities, and after the
advent of Christianity churches re-
ceived them. All through mediaeval

and modern history we find the fas-
cinating trail of the standard under
various names, which, like the
"Oriflamrne" of France, have come
down to us as a valuable heritage.
Disregarding the history of flags
in general we come to our flag, which
is a modern flag in every sense of
the word ; it has no myths or legends
connected with it, and the Heralds'
College has never been invoked in
its design. Its bright colors are at-
tractive and can be seen long dis-
tances, which is not the case with
all flags. Love for the flag has been
fostered by State, school and church,
so that nothing is more venerated in
this country than the "Stars and
Stripes." Great care has been taken
by the Federal and State govern-
ments to give the greatest possible
protection for the national emblem;
thirty-four States have legislation to
preserve the American Flag from
desecration, mutilation or improper
use. The national flag must not be
used for advertising, as a cover for
a magazine, and the statutes of the
United States forbid the use of the
flag as a trade mark.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

348

OUR COUNTRt AMi ITS RESOURCES

I be settlements in 1 1 1 « - thirteen
original Slates were largely English,
and the ceremonial flags of the col
unies took the form of the English
national standard of the period. ' in
1643 the colonies <>r' Plymouth, Mass-
achusetts Bay, Connecticut and New
Haven formed an alliance called the
"United Colonies of New England,"
and in 1686 they adopted the cross
of St. George with a gilt crown over
the monogram of James II.

NEW ENGLAND COLORS, 1686

As early as ITiki the colonies be-
gan to use flags of their own design,
the "pine tree" flag of New England

being an example. There are vari-
ous forms of this Hag. in one in

PINE TREE FLAG OF NEW ENGLAND

a pine tree in the firsl quarter. This
tlag may have been used at the bat-
tle "i Bunker Hill. Another varia-
tion was a flag with a white ground

and a green pine tree in the eenter.

FLAG USED AT THE BATTLE OF
BUNKER HILL (?)

The rattlesnake was another favor-
ite symbol in the Southern colonies,
and there are many variations of this
Hag. hut the head of the snake must

stance the

cross of st.

rruiind was
< Jeoree in

blue with i lie

lie center and

THE RATTLESNAKE FLAG OF SOUTH
CAROLINA

always face the staff. The motto
is usually •'Hunt tread on me."
South Carolina bad a yellow Hag

with the snake on it.

An early tlag displayed in the
South was a dark Pine flag with a
white crescent, and was raised at
Charleston, S. C, on September 13,
177">. The word "Liberty" was a
later addition ami was used at the

THE AMERICAN FLAG

349

historic defense of Fort Sullivan
(now Fort Moultrie). Charleston
Harbor, June, 1776.

These flags, so interesting to stu-
dents of colonial history, were not,
however, strictly speaking, the fore-
runners of the "Stars and Stripes."
The flag, as we have it to-day, is the
result of an evolution. The most
prominent features of the flag are

THE CRESCENT FLAG OF FORT SULLI-
VAN, CHARLESTON HARBOR, 1776

EARLY AMERICAN FLAG OF THE REVO
LUTION IN THE SOUTH, CHARLES-
TON, S. C.
Same as Loiig Island Battle Flag

FLAG OF THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA
COMPANY

the bars. These are not. original,
however, as we find them in the flag
of the Dutch West India Company,
and in 1704 the ships of the English
East India Company carried flags
with thirteen red and white stripes
and the cross of St. George in the
canton.

FLAG OF THE DUTCH WEST INDIA
COMPANY

FLAG OF THE PHILADELPHIA TROOP OF
LIGHT HORSE, 1775

350

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

It has also boon suggested that
the arms of Washington may have
suggested the original form of our
flag, but there seems nothing to sub-
stantiate it. Tbe tirst known in-
stance of tbe use of stripes was in
the flag of the Philadelphia Troop of
Light Horse. 177.~>.

Tbis may have been suggested by
the "Cambridge Flag," which Wash-
ington raised ;it Cambridge on Janu-
ary 2. 1 TT*>. This was truly the first
American flag to show in concrete
form the union of the colonies.

There were thirteen alternate
stripes of red and white, and in tbe
canton was the combined crosses of
St. George and St. Andrew. It is
variously called the "Grand Union
Flag," the "Greal Union Flair." and
the "Union Flag." The name "Cam-

upholsterer who was the reputed
maker of our first flag.

WHITE PLAINS BATTLE FLAG
OCT. 28, 1776

The facts, however, seem to have
been these: On June 14. 1777. the
American Congress adopted the fol-
lowing resolution :

Resolved, That the Sag of the thirteen
United states be thirteen stripes, alter
nate red and white; that the Union be
thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep
resenting a new constellation.

CONTINENTAL OR GRAND UNION FLAG
RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE JAN. 2. 1776

bridge Flag," however, appears to
stick, and is eminently appropriate.
This flag continued to be used until
the Continental Congress adopted
the "Stars and Stripes." The so-
called "Betsy Ross" Hag. or the tirst
"Stars and Stripes," is enmeshed
with much romance, but the testi-
mony as to the events rests pretty
largely on the statements of Mrs.
Ross herself and these are not sup-
ported by contemporary writers. Her
house still exists at 239 Arch Street.
Philadelphia, and is eared for by
the American Flag House and Betsy
Ross Memorial Association, and is
a memorial to the little widowed

THE FIRST NATIONAL FLAG OF THE

UNITED STATES. ADOPTED

JUNE 14, 1777

John Adams has the credit of pro-
posing the committee that framed
the resolution. Washington is said
to have remarked. "We take the
star from Heaven, the red from our
met her country, separating it by
white stripes, thus showing that we
have separated from her. and tbe
white stripes shall go down to pos-

THE AMERICAN FLAG

351

terity representing liberty." This
is pure bombast and is probably
apocryphal.

The design was not officially pro-
mulgated until September 3, 1777.
The stars were first arranged in a
circle, but this gave way to three
horizontal lines of four, five and
four stars. This remained the na-
tional emblem until May 1, 1795,
when two more stripes and two more
stars were added for Vermont and
Kentucky.

"The Star Spangled Banner" was
written by Francis Scott Key (1779-
1843). This national lyric was in-

*z~ ^-y- ytr~ - *~^ <^/~ *^ *■ ~£~A &bj£$£.

a^j ^__l „^™..

'7- ^ jZr,f.Jj&t- ^-t £~J

azA-ff.

#■

3b

-^/. «i-*-

MANUSCRIPT OF THE "STAR SPANGLED

BANNER"

Fro., i Preble's "History of Hie Flag of tlie United Smtes of

America." Hou-riiti n, Mifflin & Co., Publishers.

spired when he witnessed the bom-
bardment of Fort McHenry, Septem-
ber 13, 1S14. He was trying to ob-
tain the release of a friend who had
been captured by the British. Key
was on this expedition, which had

approached under a flag of truce,
when he was held temporarily on

THE ORIGINAL STAR SPANGLED

BANNER

(Note fifteen stripes)

O'er iM!^d^tt.!*>NJtH hon * j

FIRST PUBLICATION "STAR SPANGLED
BANNER"

352

OUR COT'XTin ANIi ITS RKSOTRCT.S

his vessel, lest im disclose the in
tended attack on Baltimore. He was
compelled, therefore, to witness the
bombardment through the whole day

and night, and when he saw the
national emblem still floating in the
breeze In the morning, his muse com-
pelled him to write this national
anthem. The song was first pub-
lished in the Baltimore American,
September 21, 1814. Originally, the
song was written on the back of a
letter and was copied out in full
at night, in a hotel in Baltimore.
It was struck off in handbill form
ami its popularity was widespread.
Ferdinand Durang fitted the music
of "Anacreon in Heaven" to the
u ords.

This remained the national flag
for twenty-three years. It was used
during the war of 1812. By 183 8
live additional States were added:
Tennessee. Ohio, Louisiana. Indiana
and Mississippi were admitted into
the Union, so that further changes
in the flag were required. The act
of April 4, 1818, provided first, "That
from and after the fourth day of
July, next, the flag of the United
States be thirteen horizontal stripes.
alternate red and white: that the
union have twenty stars, white in
a blue held." Second. •'That on the

FLAG OF TWENTY STARS AND THIR.
TEEN STRIFES

admission of ev.ry new State into
the Union one star lie added to the
union of the flag; and that such ad-
dition shall take effect on the 4th
of July, next, succeeding such ad-

mission." The rei urn to the thir-
teen stripes was ilue not only to a
reverence for the flag of the Revo-
lution but also fo fhe fact that a
further increase in the number of
stripes would have thrown the flag
out of balance, or would have made
the stripes so thin that they would
be indist inct at a distance.

Since this time no change has been
made in the flag except to add stars
as required. In the war with Mex-
ico the flag had twenty-nine stars in
the union, thirty-five during the
Civil War. and since July 4. 1912,
forty-eight stars. Considerable con-
fusion existed as to the way the
stars should be placed. The official
arrangement followed by the Army
and Navy is as follows :

THE "STARS AND STRIPES" OF TO-DAY

"America" was written by the
Rev. s. Francis Smith. I>.I>. Dr.
Lowell Mason, one of the fathers of
music in this country, turned over
to Dr. Smith some foreign music and
asked him if he found anything par-
ticularly good to write words for
the music. The latter found the tune
of "(Jod Save the King," and wrote
the remarkable lyric at Andover,
Mass.. in February. 1832. It was
struck out at a sitting with no idea
of its future popularity. The first
time it was publicly sung was at a
children's celebration of American
Independence, at the 1'ark Street
Church. Boston, July I. iv-".'-'.

THE AMERICAN FLAG

353

-*^2L- c-eH««^»v^ /Vi?" erf* J^r ce/

'•^r

«*£,

&®>6fy ^£jj£/y,

The Confederate flags are of con-
siderable interest. The first was
known as the "Stars and Bars."
This was adopted at Montgomery,
March 4, 1861, the day Abraham
Lincoln was inaugurated. It was
found that this flag was too much

&>-rtj- 6^

THE FIRST CONFEDERATE FLAG, THE
•STARS AND BARS"

ORIGINAL MS. OF "AMERICA"
f™ Preble's "History of the Flag of the I nited
States." Houghton, Mifflin A; C ... Publishers.

During the Civil War the flag
came in for much attention and the
stirring words of Secretary Dix may
be reproduced herewith ;

SECOND FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY

;.-.»

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

THIRD FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY

like the flag of the North to be
readily distinguished, so a second
flag was adopted, May. 1863.

This also was found to be objec-
tionable, having the appearance of
a flag of truce, so a broad transverse
strip of red was added, so we have
the third flag Of the Confederacy.
This was adopted February 1. 1865,
The real battle flag was like the one
pictured below.

BATTLE FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY

<>ur flag now waves over a united
country and over colonial possessions

of vasl territory and wealth, and has
also waved over Morro Castle, when
we set the Cubans \'n:o, hut it did
not remain over that historic struc-

ture, for we did not invade Cuba
with any thought of conquest hut
to free her from the oppressor.

WHEN AM) HOW TO DISPLAY THE FLAG
OF THi: VXITED STATES

(Copyright by Louis A mi in Ames)
HOLIDAYS

Lincoln Birthday February 12th.

Washington's Birthday ..February 22nd.

Jefferson Day \pril 17th.

Battle of LexingtODApril 19th.

(Patriots' Day)

♦Memorial Day May 30th.

Flag Day June 14th.

Battle of Bunker Hill. .June 17th.

Independence Day Inly 4th.

La Fayette Day.. September 6th.

"Star Spangled Ban-

ner"Day (Baltimore) September 13th.

Paul Jones Dav September 23rd.

Columbus Day October 12th.

Battle of Saratoga October 17th.

UNITED STATES FLAG FLYING OVER
MORRO CASTLE, HAVANA, CUBA

Surrender of Yorktown .October 19th.
Evacuation Day (New

York) November 25th

•On Memorial Day. May 30th, the
Flag should fly at half staff from sun

rise to ii<. on and full stall from noon to
sunset.

stars and STRIPES

is the official name of the national flag
of the United States, in the Army our
national flag is called tie' standard, also
the Colors, When borne with another
flag, the regimental color, the two ila.Lrs
an' called a "Stand of Colors." In the
Navy our national flag is known as the
Dnited states Ensign.
To show proper resped for the flag

the following should he ohsor\ o| :

THE AMERICAN FLAG

35o

Photo Harris & Ewing
THE KEY HOUSE,

GEORGETOWN

DISPLAY

The flag should not bo hoisted before
sunrise nor allowed to remain up after
sunset.

At "Retreat" sunset, civilian specta-
tors should stand at "attention"' and un-
cover during the playing of the "Star
Spangled Banner." Military spectators
are required by Regulation to stand at
"attention" and give the military salute.
During the playing of the National Hymn
at "Retreat" the flag should be lowered
but not then allowed to touch the
ground.

When the flag is flown at half staff
as a sign of mourning, it should be
hoisted to full staff at the conclusion of
the funeral.

In placing the flag at half staff, it
should first be hoisted to the top of
the staff and then lowered to position,
dropping it from the top of the staff
the distance of the width of the flag,
and preliminary to lowering from half
staff, it should first be raised to the
top.

On ship board the national flag is the
flag to be raised first and lowered
last.

Where several flags are displayed on
poles with the national flag, the Stars
and Stripes should be hoisted first
and on the tallest and most con-
spicuous staff. Where two flags are
dislayed, one our National flag, it should
be placed on the right. (To ascertain
the right of a building, face in the same
direction as the building.) No flag
should ever be flown from the same
staff as the United States flag, except in
the Navy ; then only during Divine Ser-
vice, when the Church Pennant may be
displayed above the national flag — God
above Country.

When, in parade, the national flag is
carried with any other flag, it should
have the place of honor, at the right.
If a number of flags are carried, the
national flag should either precede the
others or be carried in the center, above
the others, on a higher staff.

When flags are used in unveiling a
monument, tablet or statue, they should
not fall to the ground, but be carried
aloft, forming a distinctive feature of
the ceremony.

When the national flag is used as a
banner the union should lie at the right
(as you face the flag). When used as
an altar covering, the union is at the
right (as you face the altar), and noth-
ing should ever be placed upon the flag
except the Holy Bible.

The flag should never be flown re-
versed except in case of distress at sea.

rORTRAYING THE FLAG

To properly illustrate the flag, the
staff should always be at the left of the
picture with the flag floating to the
right. When two flags are crossed, the
national flag should be at the right. If
the national flag is pictured as a ban-
ner, the union is at the right.

SALUTE

When the National colors are passing

THE CHURCH PENNANT ONLY MAY FLY
ABOVE THE STARS AND STRIPES

::.-.i;

OUR COUNTRY a\i» ITS RESOURCES

,., paradi oi in review, tb< sp
should, if walking, halt, and ii* sitting,
arise ami stand at "attention" and un
cover.

The national salute is one gun for
every State. .

The international salute is. under the
Law of -Nations. ^1 jiuris.

c in shon the flag should do! he dipped
by way of salute or compliment.

URAL FLAG SALUTE

"1 pledge allegiance to my flag and to
the Republic for which it stands;

One nation, indivisible, with liberty and
justice for all."

Trimming the Stars

Zicr-zagging
MAKING AMERICAN FLAGS

Striping

Courtesy of the
liit. Film Co,

MRS. VERNON CASTLE AS BETSY ROSS

Part II.

THE TROPHY FLAGS OF THE EXITED STATES NAVY
By Instructor II. C. WASHBURN

D. S. NAVAL ACADEMY

AT the United States Naval seas, victories won by the consist-
Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, ently maintained skill and efficiency,
is the greatest collection of as well as by the traditional daring
naval trophy flags in the world. and devotion to duty, of our officers

BRITISH ROYAL STANDARD

This gorgeous blazoning of the arms of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, together with the arms of the Hanoverian dominions
in Brunswick, Lunenburg and Saxony, is said to be "the only
British Royal Standard ever captured in battle." And indeed,
this great standard, which measures thirty feet by twenty-five,
was taken at the attack on York I now Toronto), when that place,
then the capital of Upper Canada, was captured by the squadron
under Commodore Isaac Chauncey and a land force under Gen-
eral Pike, April 27, 1813. Nevertheless, it should be remem-
bered that the royal standard has for centuries ceased to be
a battle flag, that it is used primarily to signify the presence
of the sovereign, and that it was found at the Parliament House
at York, where it awaited the visit of a member of the royal
family. It was in retaliation for Chauncey's raid on York, and
more "especially, perhaps, for the taking of the Royal Standard
from the Parliament House, that the British sent General Ross's
army against Washington in 1S14, and burned the public buildings
at our capital.

These old flags. ' one hundred and
seventy-two in number, are the
priceless symbols of our long honor
roll of heroic victories on the high

and men. Flags of Great Britain, of
France, Spain. Mexico and Korea;
United States ensigns flown on
ships of renown : in one instance

358

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

the Stars and Stripes side by
side with the Stars and Bars of the
Confederacy; their age, their faded
colors, and the security of their re-
pose as they hang in draped folds

of the nation has been maintained
by a navy whose traditions are im-
perishable.

Since 1847, the gradually increas-
ing collection of trophies has been

DONTGIVEUF

HE SHIP

THE BATTLE FLAG OF LAKE ERIE

In the Flag Room at Annapolis, whose high ceiling and walls

are ablaze with captured trophies, the place of h : is assigned

to the "DON'T GIVE DP THE SHIP" flag; its message and Its
story arc woven through the threadbare strands of every flag
in the collection. This battle Han of the squadron under Master
Commandant Oliver Hazard ferry, and his signal for going into
action, was flown successively on his flagships the "Lawrence" and
the "Niagara," at the battle of Lake Erie, September 10, 1MX
Made al Erie by Perry's order, al the suggestion of Purser Samuel
Hambleton, it hears on a dark blue field, in white letters
rudely fashioned by the hands of jack tars, the dying words
of Captain .lames Lawrence, mortally wounded in the action
between the United Stales frigate "Chesapeake" and the P.ritish
frigate "Shannon." When the British squadron came in sight of
Perry's men. their commander jumped on a gun-slide, and ad-
dressed the crew of the flagship: "My brave lads, this Max;
bears the words of Captain Lawrence. Shall 1 hoist it':" Wild
cheers from their bared throats were echoed from the other
.ships of the squadron as the bunting was run up to the main-
royal masthead. The men took their places at the guns. In the
battle thai ensued, Perry saved the Great West, and won a
complete victory, which enabled him to send his famous message

to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and I hey are
ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The
flags of .-ill these Vessels are in the Navy Collection, hut the

commanding position is assigned to this battle flag, with its
message: "DON'T t;i\ E OP THE SHIP!"

behind the glass of their exhibition kept at the Naval Academy, whore.

cases, are significanl reminders that for many years, the flags were exhib-

we are at peace with those who in ited in the old Naval Institute Hall.

III.- past were enemies, and siunili- In 1900, however, when this building

can! object lessons that the honor was aboul to he torn down, the

THE AMERICAN FLAG

350

trophies were packed in sealed
boxes, to await the day when they
should be properly preserved, and
placed on exhibition in the new
buildings of the Naval Academy, in
which alcoves and paneled spaces
had been planned for their recep-
tion.

It was known that the flags, when
packed away, wore in poor condi-
tion, and it was feared that in spite
of all precautions they would be
damaged by moths. Efforts to have

ings and grounds at the Naval Aca-
demy, began a correspondence -which
included the naval committees of
Congress, patriotic societies, and the
custodians of flag collections the
world over. In the course of this
correspondence, a letter was received
from the Hon. Curtis Guild, ex-Gov-
ernor of Massachusetts, in which
Governor Guild named as his choice
of an expert on flag preservation
Mrs. Amelia Fowler, of Boston. At
the request of Commander Cole, Mrs.

JACK OF THE BRITISH FRIGATE "GUERRIERE"

The "Guerriere," Captain James Richard Dacres, was defeated and cap-
tured by the famous "Constitution," Captain Isaac Hull, on August 19,
1812, in the first of the frigate actions of our second war witli Great
Britain. "The sea-spell of England was broken," and although the
"Constitution" herself fought two more splendid actions under the command
of Bainbridge and Stewart respectively, against the "Java," and against
the "Cyane" and the "Levant," the American people have never forgotten
the first flush of pride which they felt when they heard the news of
Hull's triumph. Among all the single-ship victories won by American
naval officers in the War of 1812, the classic of the honor roll is the
fight between the ship we have come to love as "Old Ironsides" and His
Majesty's ship "Guerriere."

them put in a permanent state of
preservation were, however, unsuc-
cessful, until 1911.

To Commander William Carey
Cole, U.S.N., more than to any other
individual, but also to Captain John
H. Gibbons, U.S.N., then Superin-
tendent of the Naval Academy, who
supported Commander Cole in his
work, is due the credit for the ac-
complishment of the restoration of
the flags. Early in 1911 Commander
Cole, as officer in charge of build-

Fowler examined the flags in April.
1911. She found them so seriously
damaged by the ravages of moths,
as well as the decay of age, that
no ordinary method of preservation
would suffice to insure their perma-
nent existence. She accepted the
contract for their preservation.

Her special process consisted in
spreading the tattered remnants of
each flag upon a backing of heavy
Irish linen of neutral color. This
delicate work was guided by the

360

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

original measurement of the Bag, by
a knowledge of its design, and by
placing in lines at right angles the
disarranged strands of the warp and
woof threads in the fragments of
bunting. What remained of the
original flag was then sewn firmly
to ilic linen backing by needlewomen,
under Mrs. Fowler's instruction and

the original, the stitches, dyed to
match the adjacent edges of the old
bunting, complete the design of the
flag, and tell graphically the story
of the pieces that are gone.

On April 8, 1912, Congress passed
an ad appropriating $30,000 for the
work of preservation and prepara-
tion for exhibition. Shortly before

ENSIGN OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES RAM
"ALBEMARLE"

This is the only Confederate Bag placed on exhibition in
tin' great trophy collection "f the United States Navy, and
it Mas been placed side bj side with the ensign of the
United States sloop-of-war "Kearsarge," to symbolize the Union
of the North and the South. The "Albemarle," long the terror

of her enemy's w len vessels, was sunk with a spar

torpedo handled from a pickel launch by Lieutenant William
Barker Cushing, at Plymouth, Roanoke River, North Carolina,
on the nighl of October -'7. 1864. Cushing, "the bravest of
the brave," whose intrepid deed matches if it dors not
excel the burning of the "Philadelphia" in the harbor of Tripoli
by Stephen Decatur, by this one stroke put an end to the
war in North Carolina. His well-nigh miraculous survival
enabled him to see this trophy of his exploit, the flag down
on the "Albemarle," which was taken shortly after his exploit.
al the capture of Plymouth by the Union army.

guidance. The stitches, of silk or
linen thread, cover the entire sur-
face of the flag, with circular
meshes a network very strong, vet
hardly visible, since the thread is

carefullj dyed to match the colors

of the old flag, however faded or
stained in varying degrees. Where

there are gaps "i- iiii>sinv; parts in

this act was passed. Commander
Cole held up. before the members of
the House of Representatives, as an
impressive witness, the disintegrat-
ing fragments of Oliver Hazard
Perry's battle-flag, the signal for
going into action at Lake Erie.
which hears the dying words of
James Lawrence. "Don't <iive up

THE AMERICAN FLAG

::<;i

the Ship." The sight of this trophy
in such a deplorable condition was
a final argument for the appropria-
tion to which the House and the
Senate could not but respond, and
to which they responded with ad-
mirable generosity.

On July 12, 1912, Mrs. Fowler's
needlewomen, who averaged forty
in number began the arduous labor
of sewing over by hand every square

on the ground that the honor of
cataloguing the collection fell to me,
and as some account of the work of
cataloguing, which occupied two
years, is also requested, it seems
proper to state that Commander
Cole entrusted to me the work of
verifying the identity of all the
flags, discovering, if possible, the
data concerning certain flags of un-
known history, settling questions of

ADMIRAL FARRAGUT'S FLAG

This is the last flag hoisted by Admiral David Glasgow
Farragut, conqueror of the Mississippi and victor of New
Orleans and Mobile Bay. It was flown at the masthead
of U.S.S. "Tallapoosa," his last command, and was hung
at half-mast during the naval obsequies of George Pea-
body, at Portland, Maine. Looking up at this flag as
a. salute was fired at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in
Admiral Farragut's honor, he remarked, "It would be
well if I died now, in harness." He died shortly after-
ward, on August 14, 1870. Until very recently, when
Congress established the rank of Admiral, the only officers
of our naval service who flew the flag with four stars
were Farragut, David Dixon Porter, and George Dewey.

inch of the flags. Some idea of the
magnitude of the task will be had
when it is explained that the col-
lection contains no less than 15,000
square yards of bunting. The flags
were completely restored, and placed
on exhibition with great skill, by
May 16, 1913. The work had occu-
pied ten months.

As I have been asked to write an
account of the flags for this book

the best plan of exhibition, and
writing the official inscriptions, or
the catalogue proper. When I took
up this work, I found confronting
me a task difficult in some ways, if
not impossible. Evidence was not
lacking that a considerable number
of the flags had been confused with
other flags. To mention a few of these
cases — since corrected in every in-
stance— the ensign of the British

362

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

frigate Cyane was listed as the en-
sign of the Gui rrirrc, and the jack
of the Querru re was listed as the
jack of tlic Cyane; there were five
other errors in the identity of Brit-
ish flags; even flags captured during
the Spanish War had been incor-

inscriptions on the hoists of the
tia.i;s. by eliminating each certainty
in identification as it appeared, and
by collecting all possible information
from individuals who knew certain
flags, the problem aarrowed down
to three or four cases. At last, these

ENSIGN OF THE UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP 'MAINE

The battleship "Maine," commanded by Captain Charles
Dwighl Sigsbee, \v;is blown up while al anchor in the
harbor of Havana, Cuba, <>n the n'v^M of February 1". 1898.
This Bag— its colors intermingled by the action of salt water-
was recovered from :i locker of the "Maine" after her
destruction. It is thought to be the Bag lowered al sunset
on the evening of February 15, 1898. So far :is is known,
no poem Ikis been written about the flag of the "Maine" to

stir tiu- bearts of Americans. Perhaps there is no n 1 of

a poem to summon up the memory of that ship; monuments
attesl the fame of her gallant dead, and her flag stands
among the trophies of the Navy symbol of the honorable
keeping of a nation's word, disclaiming desire tor conquest,
and of the freedom uf Cuba.

rectly labeled and cumbered. The
old catalogue, published in 1888, was
untrustworthy, and subsequent er-
rors had made it virtually useless.
Gradually, by dint of gathering all

were disposed of by the discovery
of some old drawings and photo-
graphs. In the course of this work.
the history <>t' all hut two of the
flags of unknown history was de-

the evidence available in the form of termined.

CHAPTER II.

AERONAUTICS

By BARON L. d'ORCY, Mem. S. A. E.

Static and Dynamic Aircraft — The Drift Balloon — Captive and Kite Bal-
loons— Dirigible Balloons — History and Mechanics of the Aeroplane —
The Development of Military Aviation — Scouting Aeroplanes — Fighting
Aeroplanes — Bombing Aeroplanes — The Seaplane — Aeronautics in
America

STATIC AND DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT

AERONAUTICS, the science of
aerial navigation, and its vehi-
cles, generically termed aircraft,
subdivide into two distinct branches
and types, respectively. The science
dealing with machines whieb are
supported by a gas lighter than air,

i. e., static aircraft, is called aerosta-
tion; its vehicles are the drift bal-
loon, the kite balloon and the di-
rigible balloon, all of which, it
should be noted, possess the faculty
of staying aloft without expending
motive power. Tbe science dealing

Photo Hollinger

WILBUR WEIGHT

Photo Hollinger

ORVILLE WRIGHT

Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc.

364

(HH COUNTRY AMi ITS RESOURCES

with machines which are supported
by the pressure onrushing air ex-
erts on cambered surfaces, i. e.,
dynamic aircraft, is called aviation;
its vehicles are the glider and the
aeroplane, of which, however, only
the latter possesses practical value,
gliders being only used for experi-
mental purposes. Unlike static air-
craft the aeroplane cannot remain
motionless in the air, for its ability
to stay aloft is conditional upon its
faculty to create air pressure by
continuous motion. This obvious
drawback may some day be obviated
by the helicopter or direct-lift ma-
chine, in which sustentation is
sought to be attained independently
of horizontal motion by the use of
vertical lifting screws. This type
of machine is still in its experimen-
tal stage: such is also the case of
of the omithopter or wing-flapping
machine, which seeks to copy the
movements of the bird's wing-beats,
and of the soaring machine, which is
supposed to fly by the use of favora-
ble air-currents.

THE DRIFT BALLOON

The drift balloon (or aerostat i
was invented by the Montgolfier
brothers of Annonay, France, who
built in 1783 a balloon supported by
heated air.

Before the close of the same year
the crude hot-air balloon (called
montgolflere) met a much more sci-
entific rival which shortly succeeded
in eliminating it : this was the char-
Here, so named after the physicist
Charles, who substituted hydrogen
for hot air and invented nearly all
the fitments of the modern aerostat.
Hydrogen gas has a lifting power
of about 60 pounds per 1,000 cubic
feet and remains the most efflcienl
static motor to the present day: hut
as its production is expensive, sport-
ing balloons are generally Inflated
with co:il gas, which was invented
in 1821 by George Green, of Eng-
land. <'oal gas, however, lifts only
about 35 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet

A modern aerostat consists of an

envelope, made of varnished silk,
calico or rubber-proofed fabric im-
pervious to gas, which is inflated
through a long neck on the under
side, called appendix. The envelope
is surrounded with a net, the bottom
of which is constituted by a SUSP* n-
sion ring to which the wicker basket
carrying the aeronauts is toggled
with eight ropes. The top of the
envelope is provided with a valve
which allows part of the gas to es-
cape whenever the aeronaut wishes
to descend. Upon landing, the bal-
loon must at once be disinflated in
order to avoid being dragged; this
is achieved by the ripping panel,
which covers a vertical seam in the
envelope and is operated by a rope
whereby the balloon can be torn
open instantly.

The equipment of an aerostat com-
prises : (li a guide-rope, which en-
ables the pilot to maintain his verti-
cal equilibrium, when near the
ground, without expending ballast.
the balloon being then relieved of
part of its weight by the rope trail-
ing on the ground: (2) ballast, con-
stituted by sand carried in bags, and
(3) various recording instruments
such as a barograph, a statoscope, a
compass, etc.

In the days when self-propelled
aircraft were inextant, the drift bal-
loon had a wide usefulness not only
in the tield of scientific and sporting
achievement — where its value re-
mains unimpaired — hut also as a
vehicle of transportation. This was
conclusively demonstrated during
the siege of Paris in 1870-71, when
the besieged garrison organized a
balloon-mail service by means of
which Pit voyagers amongst whom
Gambetta- and 3,000,000 despatches
were carried over the Prussian lines.
Out of sixty-six balloons only five
were captured by the enemy and two
were lost in the Atlantic: and so
meat was the moral and material
success of this enterprise that Bis-
marck threatened to shoot every
aeronaut as a spy, and Krupp pro-
duced the first anti-aircraft gun.

366

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Although the dirigible balloon
and the aeroplane have now entirely
eliminated the drift balloon from
military use, it seems certain that
the aerostat will always retain its
value for scientific and sporting
achievements.

CAPTIVE AND KITE BALLOONS

The typical captive balloon is
nothing but an aerostat which is
maintained at a given height by a

Courtesy of "Plying"

FRENCH KITE-BALLOON ENGAGED IN
"GUN-SPOTTING"

cable attached to the ground. Such
was the famous Entreprentmt, which
afforded General Jourdan, command-
ing the French army at the battle

of Fleurus (1794)j such an excellent
view of tlie enemy's movements, that
it actually turned a near French de-
feat into a brilliant victory. Such
was also the gigantic sightseeing
balloon Giffard built for the Paris
Exhibition of 1878; this craft, which
had a volume of 882,500 cubic feet,
carried thirty-eight passengers at a
time to a height of 1,600 feet, and
was hauled down by a 300 horse-
power steam winch. This balloon
has remained the largest spherical
of either drift or captive type.

Contrary to what might be ex-
pected, the lesson of the battle of
Fleurus was lost to military science
and it was only after the Franco-
Prussian war that the military es-
tablishments of the principal nations
adopted the captive balloon for pur-
poses of observation in held and
siege warfare. In this function cap-
tive balloons played a certain r61e
during French and British colonial
expeditions; nevertheless their use-
fulness proved to be a limited one
on account of their inability to stand
up in a strong wind.

The defects of the ordinary cap-
tive balloon were overcome by two
German army officers. Captains Par-
seval and Sigsfeld, who produced in
1898 the so-called kite-balloon — a
craft which has proven so success-
ful that it is now recognized to be
an indispensable auxiliary of every
up-to-date army and navy.

The kite-balloon consists essen-
tially of an elongated gas-bag which
is divided into two unequal portions,
the larger of which (Comprising
about four-lift lis the total volume i is
tilled with hydrogen; the remaining
one-fifth constitutes the ballonnet, or
air-cell, and this is automatically in-
flated by the wind through a con-
venient aperture. The ballonnet ful-
fills two purposes: first, it creates
within the gas-bag a sur-pressure
equal to the pressure of the wind
plus the static pressure of the hydro-
gen, thus enabling the balloon to
maintain its shape regardless of any
wind the mooring cables can with-

368

OUK COI NTR1 AND lis RESOURCES

stand: and secondly, air being much
heavier than hydrogen, the air-cell
causes the balloon to assume an in-
clined position, which is particularly
favorable for counter-acting the de-
pressing tendency of the wind. In
order to keep the crafl alv aj s bead-
on to the wind a sausage-shaped air
bag rudder is fitted to the rear of
the envelope, which is inflated the
same way as the air-cell: longitudi-
nal stability is further insured by
a number of sails and a device simi-
lar t<> a kite's tail.

The standard type of kite-balloon
has a volume of from 25,000 to 35,000
CUbiC feet, and it carries one or two
observers who are connected by trie-
phone with the artillery unit they
are attached to. As a fire-control
station for military, and even naval
operations of a stationary character
(siege, blockade, etc.), the kite-bal
loon far surpasses the aeroplane, af-
fording, as it does, a steady platform
wherefrom held glasses or telescopes

can he used to irreat advantage.

In the Great War the kite-balloon
is chiefly being used on the western

front, where hundreds of them dot
the rears of the Allies' and German
lines. Their importance in effectu-
ally regulating artillery tire was par-
ticularly well demonstrated in the
aerial operations which preluded the
battle of the Soinine. A few daj s he-
fore the big Allied "drive" began,
British and French ti;;htim_r aero-
planes methodically attacked every
kite-balloon which stood watch over
the German lines in that sector, fif
teen being set on tire and destroyed
and the remainder being driven
down. It was only after the German
commanders had been thus deprived
of their (ire-control stations that the
Allied drive started with it- bom
bardment and subsequent infantry
attack.

As kite-balloons do not possess any
means of defense it becomes neces-
sary to provide their occupants with
parachutes so thai they might es

cape with t heir lives should the h:i I
loon he carried away by a storm or

he set afire by enemy aviators. Not-
withstanding the latter contingency,
which incidentally can he neutral-
ized in some measure by the co-
operation of anti-aircraft l'iiiis and
friendly fighting aeroplanes, kite-
balloons appear to be decidedly su-
perior to aeroplanes in the function
of directing artillery fire because of
the former's ability to hover over
a place, which aeroplanes do not
possess.

DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS

The dirigible balloon is the logical
outcome of the Montgolfler brothers'
ambition — which prompted their in-
vention— to navigate the atmosphere
at will in lieu of drifting slavishly
before the prevailing wind.

The basic elements of a dirigible
are i 1 i an elongated gas-container,
called hull or < /"•' /<//» . and so shaped

in order to attain the greatesl sp I

with the leasl expenditure of motive
power; (2) one or more cars or no-
celles containing the power-planl
which drives a number of propellers,
the fuel supply, the crew and the
passengers, and eventually a com-
mercial or military load; i ■"> i a sys-
tem df connection between cars and
hull: (4t such means as will assure
the permanency of the hull's shape:
and (5) such mean-; of control as
will effectually regulate the Longi-
tudinal and vertical equilibrium.

A century elapsed before all these
requirements could be successfully
tilled. This is why the invention of
the dirigible cannot he attributed to
one sole man. hut is rather due to a
series nf inventions, such as that of
the ballonnet, of the stabilizing fins
and of the horizontal rudder, and
finally of the <ins>>ihi<- engine, which
latter has. more than anything else,
made the actual Mi'vi^ of the diri-
gible possible.

The existing dirigibles may be
divided, according to their mode of
construction, into two classes, viz..
i1i pressure airships in which the
permanency of the hull is insured by
maintaining within the flexible en

AERONAUTICS

::<;;>

velope ;i pressure superior i<> the
atmospheric pressure, ami i~i rigid
or structure airships, in which the
same object is attained by menus of
a rigid framework covered with fab-
ric which encloses a number of drum-
shaped gas bags. Pressure airships
further subdivide into vessels of the

CROSS SECTION OF AN ASTRA-TORRES

AIRSHIP, SHOWING MODE OF

SUSPENSION

non-rigid and semi-rigid type, accord-
ing to whether the car or cars are
directly hung from the envelope by
means of steel cables or are sus
pended from a metal keel attached
to, or built into, the hull. Of the
former type are the Astra-Torres, the

Clement-Bayard, the Parseval and
the Zodiac airships; the Crocco-
Ricaldoni, the Forlanini, the Gross-

Basenach and the Lebaudy dirigibles
pertain to the latter. But whatever
the mode of suspension, all pressure
airships have as a common feature
the ballonnet, a collapsible air-cell
located at the bottom of the hull,
which can be inflated with air by a
ventilator whenever the gas con-
tracts through a change of tempera-
ture or of atmospheric pressure so
that a constancy of displacement
may be realized. The ballonnet com-
pensates losses of volume, but not
ones of lift (air being about four-
teen times heavier than hydrogen);
a decrease of lift can be made good
only by jettisoning ballast (sand or
water i. An excess of pressure with-
in the hull caused by an expansion
of the hydrogen is relieved by auto-
malic valves, which are fitted to
both hull and ballonnet; but as the
ballonnet valves open at a less pres-
sure than those of the hull an excess
of pressure will first be relieved by
an expulsion of air from the bal-
lonnet. If, therefore, the latter has
a sufficient capacity, no losses of yas
will occur in the process of regulat-
ing the vertical equilibrium.

On sonic pressure airships two
ballonnets are fitted, one fore and
one abaft, which can respectively be
pumped full of air and thus steer
the vessel up and down by static
means; it is more common, however,

AERIAL NAVIGATION CHARTS
(as shown on the left) are designed and colored to closely resemble the
as seen from above {on the right)

rround

370

OUB COl NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

to effect this function dynamically,
i. c. by fitting the airship's stern
with a horizontal rudder, called eh
vator, which acts by the virtue of
the pressure onrushing air exerts
upon an inclined plane. In addition

(riioto J. E. Watkins)

OTTO LILIENTHAI'S BIPLANE GLIDER

to an elevator and a vertical rudder,
for steering right and left, most air-
ships are fitted with horizontal and
vertical fins, which serve the pur-
pose of checking any pitching and
yawing tendency.

The engines used on airships dif-
fer Imt little from the well known
automobile type, except that partic-
ular care is taken in their design
to obtain the least possible weighl
and a low fuel consumption : the best
airship engines (Chenu, ('lenient
Bayard, Maybach) do not consume
more than one-half pound of fuel
per horse-power in one hour. Pro-
pulsion is effected b.\ air-screws,
which are generally mounted on out-
riggers on either side of the cars.

Rigid airships need no halloiinet.
the shape of their hull being ren-
dered permanent by the framework.
This system has the advantage of
being supported by independent l'.ms-
bags so that if one of these should
accidentally become disintlated the
airship could still continue its jour-
ney. - This feature is, particularly

valuable for military service and it

has enabled many a Zeppelin — the
most successful rigid airship to date
—to escape destruction after having
been hit by enemy tire. A remark-
able proof of the value of the sec-
tional construction of rigid airships
was furnished by a Zeppelin which
collided with a tree and had its how-
ripped open by the impact', the dam-
age was quickly repaired by taking
off three front compartments and
by lightening the front ear. where-
upon the airship concluded its jour-
ney, a matter of ninety miles. A
similar accident, had it happened to
a pressure airship, would have
caused the destruction of the vessel.

The great difficulty confronting the

operation of Zeppelins is the moor-
ing of these enormous vessels in the
open, for unlike pressure airships
they cannot he instantly disintlated
in case of an impending hurricane:
hut this drawback, which lias caused
the loss of a score of Zeppelins, is
now being overcome by the increased
skill of the airship crews and by a
perfected system of anchoring, but

S. P. LANGLEY'S STEAM-DRIVEN AERO-
PLANE MODEL WHICH FLEW IN 1896
ABOVE THE POTOMAC RIVER A DIS-
TANCE OF ;,.i MILE

chiefly by a greal number of "air

ports." which the Germans have tit-
ted with elaborate sheds, hydrogen
generating plants, workshops, >tc.

AERONAUTICS

On the left is shown the motorless glider on which O. Wright remained aloft for

nine minutes ; on the right, the man-lifting kite of Capt.

Sacconey used for military observation

Before the Zeppelins had become
notorious in the Great War as en-
gines of indiscriminate destruction
they achieved a more legitimate
fame as pleasure craft. For several
years previous to 1914 the German
Airship Navigation Company of
Frankfurt maintained between vari-
ous German towns a highly success-

ful passenger service in which no
passenger ever lost his life, although
several accidents marked the opera-
tion of the air liners. The Zep-
pelins engaged in this service were
fitted with a luxurious cabin-car,
seating twenty-four, and a cold res-
taurant service was provided. A
look-out post fitted on top of the

AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF THE CURTISS "FLYING BOAT"
SO horse-power engine; speed in air, CO miles an hour; speed on water, 50 to 60 miles an hour

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

(Photo E. L. Ovington)

FRONT VIEW OF THE 50 H. P. GNOME
ROTARY, AIR-COOLED MOTOR

hull, which could be reached from
the bow-car by means of a stairway
enclosed in a chimney, enabled the
airship commander to navigate by
astronomical observation.

While private enterprise thus de-
veloped the air-liner the (ierman mil-
itary authorities created the air-
cruiser a Zeppelin in which the
pleasant cabin-car holds bombs of
the explosive and incendiary kind
and mounts machine guns, and late-
ly, even small quick-firers for ward-
bag off enemy aeroplanes.

Outside of Germany the value of
the rigid air-cruiser with its great
range and carrying capacity was
either overlooked or contested, al-
though in 1912 the first naval Zep-
pelin covered on it- trial run a dis-
tance of 1,200 miles in 31 hours,
with a crew of -".1 and a wireless
outfit carrying 200 mile-.

When the war broke oul the Allies
possessed only pressure airships of
lew range and slew speed as com-
pared to the dozen Zeppelins tier-
many was able to line up: this ex-
plains the marked superiority in
long-range scouting the Germans
possessed during the initial onrush
on both fronts. The Allies clearly

DETAILS OF AEROPLANE DESIGN

On tk> hit a machine with folding wings; on the right, the armored nose, enclosing
a rotary motor, of a military monoplane

AERONAUTICS

■at.;

perceived their inferiority in this
respect and also their inability to
produce in a short time rigid air-
ships which would meet the Zep-
pelins on even terms ; so they set
upon developing the bombing aero-
plane and the anti-aircraft gun.
Gradual improvement both in these
weapons and in the skill of their
operators soon cut short the Zep-
pelin's value for overland scouting,
reducing its activity to night raids
on more or less defended towns,
which achieved, however, little mili-
tary damage.

The greatest present asset of the
Zeppelin seems to be its faculty to
act as a fleet auxiliary for strategic
reconnaissance, because it exceeds in
this respect not only the radius of
action but also the climbing ability
of seaplanes. If it be realized (hat
a Zeppelin can sec from a height
where it is little vulnerable, lour
times as far and travel twice as fast
as the swiftest scout-cruiser, the ex-
traordinary handicap the British
Grand Fleet had to cope with in the
battle of Jutland may readily be
understood.

Although of much less potentiality
than the Zeppelins, the pressure air-
ships of the Allies have been found
very useful for anti-submarine de-
fence, mine-sweeping and minor
scouting operations. It seems, how-
ever, that should the dirigible sur-
vive in spite of the aeroplane, which
is quite possible, the rigid system
will likely prove the ultimate type,
there being a limit of size beyond
which it will be neither practical
nor economic to build pressure air-
ships.

It is interesting to note how rap-
idly standardized airships can be
built in large quantities : since the
outbreak of the Great War the three
factories of the Zeppelin Company
have turned out airships at the rate
of one in three, four and five weeks,
respectively. By July, 1916, one
hundred and ten Zeppelins had been
launched, including twenty-five prior
to the war; it is true, on the other

hand, that up to that date thirteen
Zeppelins had been lost in times of
peace and forty-two due to the
agency of war. Owing to its great
vulnerability the military future of
the Zeppelin seems rather uncertain;
its commercial possibilities, however.
appear to be more promising for the
immediate future and more especial-
ly so for a trans-Atlantic service.

HISTORY AND MECHANICS OF THE
AEROPLANE

The aeroplane is — just like the
dirigible balloon — not so much one
man's invention as the combined
'•product resulting from experiments

(Photo L. d'Orcy)

TWO - SEATER SCOUTING AEROPLANE
(160 H. P.) OF THE U. S. ARMY AVIA-
TION SECTION STARTING TO GET OFF

conducted and theories worked out
for nearly a century by several
schools of investigators. The funda-
mental theory of the aeroplane was
clearly set forth by an Englishman,
Sir George Cayley, as early as isop,
and actually furnished the basis
upon which the modern aeroplane
was subsequently built up. In 1846
another Englishman, String 'fellow,
gave a practical proof of this theory
by building a small aeroplane model
driven by a steam engine, which
made several successful flights un-
der perfect balance; this machine
was, in conformity with Cayley's
theory, a monoplane. In 1S66 F. S.
Wenham, also of England, invented
the multiple surfaced aeroplane and
it was again Stringfellow who vindi-

374

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

cated the claims of the new prin-
ciple by a successful free flight of
a triplane model. Further important
contributions to the dynamics of the
aeroplane were made by .1. P&naud,
II. Phillips, sir Hiram Maxim and
S. P. Langley, late secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. The latter
built, in 1903, a man-lifting aero-
plane, which. 1 mt for its defective
launching device, would have flown
under control just as it did eleven
years afterward with its original ro-
tary motor. The first aeroplane to
have actually left the ground, carry-
in- a man, was the hat-shaped ma-
chine with which ('. Ader, of France,
made, from 1890 to 1896, several
short flights. The balance of this
machine, however, was poor, and it
was only after the German O. Lilien-
tluil had discovered by prolonged
gliding experiments the means of
controlling the balance of flying ma-
chines that progress became practi-
cal. Lilienthal's gliding experiments
were repeated and perfected in this
country, under the guidance of O.
Chanute, by the Wright brothers, of
Dayton, Ohio, who gave the aero-
plane its one missing link, the warp-
ing mechanism for insuring trans-
verse equilibrium; having thus
broughl the dynamic flyer under
three-dimensional control, the
Wright brothers lifted their glider
with a gasoline engine driving twin
propellers and succeeded in making
their first power-flights on December
17, 1903, on the beach of Kitty
Hawk. X. C. The Wright brothers,
therefore, fully deserve the credit of
having rendered practical in other
words, invented the aeroplane.

The basic elements of an aero-
plane are : ( 1 i the main surfaces, or
Wings, of which there are one or
more pairs (in the latter case super-
posed or in tandem.) according to
whether the machine Is a monoplane
or multiplane (biplane, triplane,
quadruplane, etc) ; (2) the auxil-
iary surfaces or control organs which
regulate the machine's balance and
direction (ailerons, (ins. elevator

and rudder i : (3) the bodywork or
fuselage, which forms the bridge be-
tween the wind's and tin' tail and
affords accommodation for the pas-
sengers, the fuel tanks, the navigat-
ing instruments, etc.; t I) the power-
plant, composed of one or more en-
gines actuating one or more propel-
lers, whose position ahead or abaft
of the wings causes the aeroplane
to be called a tractor or pusher; and
(5) the undercarriage, which is tit-
ted with either wheels or floats, or
both, for starting from and alight-
ing on land or water, or both.

The seaplane or marine aeroplane
is the invention of Henri Fabre, of
Marseilles. France, who made the
first flight from the sea on May 21,
1910, at Martigues. The "flying
boat," whose development is chiefly
due to Giant II. CurtiSS and !/. lh it-
haul, is a seaplane in which the
bodywork is combined with a cen-
tral boat of large flotation, thus do-

il'liuto L. d'Orcy)

AMERICAN-BUILT SPEED SCOUT FITTED
WITH A 100 H. P. STATIONARY CUR-
TISS MOTOR. HORIZONTAL SPEED. 119
MILES PER HOUR.

Ing away with a special undercar-
riage.

Particular credit for having ad-
vanced the mechanics of the aero
plane is due to Louis lib riot. E.
Xi<iii»>rt, ./. Be~chereau and It.
Saulnier (monoplane construction):
to the Voisin and Farman brothers
(development of (he pusher biplane)
to Louis BrGguet and .1. I. Roe, the

AERONAUTICS

375

THE ROLLING STOCK OF AN AEROPLANE SQUADRON
On the left, a motor repair lorry; on the right, an aeroplane truck with its trailer

originators of the tractor biplane,
and to Gustave Eiffel, whose aero-
dynamic research work has placed
the aeroplane on a scientific basis.
No less credit should go to the
S4guin brothers for their invention
of the Gnome motor, which has
probably furthered the progress of
aviation more than any other single
invention and still appears as the
prototype of the most promising
aeroplane engine; and to L. Chau-
rirrc. inventor of the wooden air-
screw.

Quite an important advance in
aeroplane design was achieved in
1913 by a Russian engineer, M. Si-
Jcorski, who first conceived the idea
of building aeroplanes of very large
size, driven by several independent
motors and capable of carrying a
dozen people in a comfortable, heat-
ed and lighted cabin. In this coun-
try Glenn H. Curtiss has since suc-
cessfully produced large seaplanes
based on a similar principle.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY
AVIATION

As soon as the aeroplane had
proved its ability to effect voyages
with sufficient reliability and its
range, carrying capacity and climb-
ing ability increased, military au-
thorities all over the world were
prompt in adopting it for purposes
of reconnaissance. It was in this
function that the aeroplane made
its dehut in the Great War and the

services it rendered were so im-
portant that all the belligerents
quickly decided upon greatly enlarg-
ing their aerial establishments. As
specific examples of the work achiev-
ed by scouting aeroplanes one might
mention how in the battle of Mons
the British expeditionary force was
saved from envelopment and possible
annihilation by an aviator who re-
ported that the Germans had twice
the numbers that had been antici-
pated. Again, at the battle of the
Marne it was an aeroplane recon-
naissance which disclosed the gap
between Von Biilow's and Von Hau-
sen's armies, and thus enabled Gen-
eral Foch to drive a wedge into the
German lines, forcing them to re-
treat.

The examples cited sufficiently
emphasize the value of the aeroplane
for scouting; but as both Allies and
Teutons went to war provided with
"aerial eyes," each party soon felt
the need of preventing the enemy
from seeing — and forestalling — the
friendly moves. Such was the in-
ception of what is to-day termed a
"fighting machine." Then the neces-
sity arose of destroying an impor-
tant supply station or a railway
junction of the enemy, which ob-
ject could not otherwise be reached
than by attacking the place fron
above: this necessity created th<
bombing aeroplane.

Originally there were no special
machines for the manifold duties

376

ttVli COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

of scouting, fighting and bombing,
every aeroplane being supposed to
carry out all or any duty as the
necessity arose. As a result qo aero-
plane was really efficient in any func-
tion. Curiously enougb the Germans
still adhere in some measure to this
theory which the British and French
air services rejected early in the
war.

SCOUTING AEROPLANES

The modern scouting aeroplane.
as developed by the Allies, is a two-
seater of great speed rang* — else a
detailed inspection of the underlying

is as a rule a highly trained special-
ist, who must he able to distinguish
from a beight of several thousand
feet a convoy train from artillery.
field guns from howitzers, or a sup-
ply station from an aircraft park,
and he conversant with the Morse
code, so that he may instantly send
off hi- report by wireless telegraphy.
To fly hack to headquarters would
mean too much loss of time. The
observer's duty is the more difficult
as the enemy below will do every-
thing t<» mislead him. by setting up
dummy guns and holding hack his
gun tire while the aeroplane hovers

FIXED MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT OF A FRENCH FIGHTING AEROPLANE

objective becomes Impossible— whose

only task consists in observing a
given objective and reporting the re-
sult in the quickest way possible.
Its armament is purely defensive
and generally consists of one ma-
chine gun firing broadsides and
abaft (on tractors! or ahead (on
pushers). The crew is composed of
a pilot and an observer; the latter

above; troop columns on march will
Stop and seek shelter: positions
which cannot he masked will he de-
fended by anti-aircraft guns or pos-
sibly by fighting aeroplanes which

the observer will have to fight Off
with his machine gun.

And reconnaissance is not limited
to Doting the movements and

strength of enemy forces; it includes

AERONAUTICS

377

"gun-spotting," which consists in con-
veying to the artillery the exact
range of an objective to be shelled.
These manifold duties of the ob-
server explain why a scouting aero-
plane must be a two-seater : the pilot
is indeed kept busy enough in trying
to keep to his right course while
dodging anti-aircraft shells by flying
in erratic zigzags.

Although anti-aircraft guns have
greatly improved in precision during

crossing the enemy lines at only 2,-
500 feet altitude and still was able
to effect a safe return.

The wartime services of an aero-
plane may attain a period of three
to six months, although a good many
machines last but a few weeks ; ro-
tary motors last 100 to 150 hours of
service, provided they are thorough-
ly taken apart and cleaned after ev-
ery 20 hours of service. Stationary
engines last a good deal longer.

FRENCH AVI0N-CAN0N MOUNTING ONE 1V2 IN. Q. F. GUN

two years of warfare — of which the
monthly lists of the belligerents' air-
craft losses bear eloquent, testimony
— nothing short of a direct hit into
a vital part will down an aeroplane,
provided its petrol-tank has not been
set afire. Shrapnel balls and rifle
bullets are little effective against
aeroplanes flying at a height of
10,000 feet ; a French scouting ma-
chine received 400 bullet holes while

The tactical unit of the aviation
service is the squadron, which con-
sists (in the United States and Brit-
ish armies) of twelve machines of
the same type, twelve motor trucks
with their trailers for land trans-
portation and of a repair-car, and
several automobiles and motorcycles.
The squadron subdivides into three
companies (flights in the R. Flying
Corps) of four machines each.

OUB COUNTRY A.\I> ITS RESOURCES

TABLE SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE ZEPPELIN AIRSHIP

Year

1 '.ii ii i
1905
I §08
L910
1912
1914
1916

Lengl b
Peel

420
420
446
485

:, is
518

7M)

Beam
Feel

38
38 1
I _• 6
10

48.5
54 . 4
SO

Total Lift

(Tons)

li> 8
U 'i
17.0
21 8
L\-> 1

30 .",
til .0

H. P.

Speed

Miles

:;l>

15

170

25

210

28

330

:;.-.

600

47

S( II 1

53

1,500

65

WORLD'S KKCORDS FOR AIRCRAFT

(Those marked * are not recognized by the international Aeronautic Federation)
I )i a i \m i: (Cross ( 'omit • j

Aeroplanes 646 miles, by A. Seguin, Paris-Boidcaux-Paris. on Oct. 13th, I'M.;.

(H. Farman pusher, so h. p. Gnome).

Dirigibles 745 miles* by the Italian Army airship M-2 on Oct. 14th, 1913.

Drift balloons 1896.97 miles by Berliner, Bitterfeld to Bisserstk, Russia. Feb 8

10th, 1914.

Duration (Non-stop)

Aeroplanes 21 hrs., 48 min., by W. Landmann. at Johannistal (Germanj on

June 26-27th, 1914. (Albatros biplane tractor. 75 h. p. Mercedes, i

Dirigibles 35 hrs.. 20 min., by the "Adjutant-Vincenot" I French army ship),

on June 27th, 1914.
Drift balloons .87 hrs., by Hugo Kaulen, Bitterfeld to Perm (Russia), on Dec 13-

17th, 1913.

Speed over Closed Circuit

Aeroplanes 126.67 miles per hour, by M. Prevost, at Reims (France) on Sept.

29th, 1913. (Deperdussin monoplane, 160 h. p. Gn6me

Dirigibles 58 m. p. h.* by the Italian army airship V-l, in Feb.. L915.

Altitude

Aeroplanes 21,471 ft., by E. Audemars, at Tssy, France, on Sept. 8th, 1915.

t Morane-Saulnier parasol monoplane, 80 h. p. l.e Rhone.)

Dirigibles 10,728 feet*, by the Italian army airship M-l in Feb., 1915.

Drift balloons 34,433 feet, by Suring and Berson at Berlin, on June ilst. 1901.

Oversea
320 miles* — St. Gran, from Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire) to Kleppe near stavangcr
(Norway), on .Inly 30th, 1914. Bleriot monoplane.

FIGIITIXO AF.ROPT.AXF.S

Although scouting aeroplanes do
carry defensive armament, it often

becomes necessary to protect them
against a concerted enemy attack.
Such is the function of the fighting
aeroplane, a high-speed, single-seat-
er tractor, which <•,■ ut-fly and out-
climb any other type of machine.
The pilot aims the machine-gun,
which is rigidly fixed in front of
him, by steering the aeroplane
against the target ; the blades of the
air-screw are armored and thus de-
flect the bullets which hit them, in
this way about 30 per cent of the
bullets go astray. This gun-mount-
ing, which was invented by R. Gar-
ros, the famous French .airman, litis
since been adopted by the Germans
on their Fokker monoplanes with the

one variance, however, that the gun
is connected with a timing device
actuated by the motor, so that it
can lire only when the blades of
the air-screw do not cover the muz-
zle.

Quick maneuvering ability being
one of the chief assets in aerial com-
bat, it follows thai fighting aero-
planes must be highly sensitive, in
other words, neul rally equilibrated,
SO as to instantly respond to control :
this is why only pilots showing par-
ticular aptitude for aerial combat
are entrusted with the operation of
fighting machines.

In addition to protecting scouting
machines, fighting aeroplanes .'ire
also used for destroying kite bal-
loons, convoying bombing machines
on raids and even attacking Zep

AERONAUTICS

:;T!t

pelins. Two Zeppelins were thus de-
stroyed from small combat machines
carrying but a few bombs, by the
late Flight-Sub-Lieut. R. Warneford,
R.N.A.S., and Lieut. W. L. Robinson.
R.F.C., respectively, whereas aero-
planes of all types, as well as kite
balloons, have been lost by the chief
belligerents in numbers aggregating
several hundreds.

BOMBING AEROPLANES

Fighting aeroplanes are but oc-
casionally used as bombers and more
especially in cases where quick
climbing is imperative. Bombing
raids proper are carried out by so-
called bombing aeroplanes, in which
high speed is forsaken in favor of
great carrying capacity. The load
of explosives such a machine carries
can be apportioned either into a
great number of light bombs or else
into a few powerful missiles, some
of which weigh as much as 300
pounds.

Considering the first two years of
aerial operations it appears that the
French and the British achieved in-
contestable aerial supremacy in
scouting and fighting only toward
the close of this period ; it is there-
fore the more striking that the action
of bombing aeroplanes, in other
words the aeroplane offensive, should

COCKPIT, MOUNTING A MACHINE GUN,
OF A BRITISH BOMBING AEROPLANE

have belonged practically all the
time to the Allies. The big bombing
raids by French and British aero-
plane fleets — some of them composed
of fifty and sixty machines — against
the airship sheds, railway junctions,
shell factories, supply stations, sub-
marine bases and coast defense
works of the Germans, in the course
of which immeasurable moral and
material punishment was inflicted,
certainly appear as one of the most
striking phases of aerial warfare.

An indication of what the battle
aeroplane of to-morrow might be, is
furnished by the French avion-<<i-
non; this is a large pusher, mount-
ing on its bow a 1^-inch quick fire

SEAPLANE UNDER CARRIAGES
On the left, a "twin-floater ;" on the right, a "flying-boat"

380

OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

gun, which fires an incendiary shell,
and is chiefly used for shooting
down kite-balloons.

THE SEAPLANE

The functions of the seaplane ar^
to all intents similar to those of
the aeroplane, viz.. scouting in ad-
vance of fleets and naval liases.
clearing the skies of enemy aircraft
and bombing the enemy's coast es-
tablishments.

Seaplanes work under a double
handicap: lirst. all other elements
being equal, their heavy floats great-
ly decrease the useful load which
might otherwise be utilized for in-
creasing their range or their load of
bombs, and secondly, the design of
seaplane-floats is not yet sufficiently
advanced to permit alighting on or
starting from a rough sea. Con-
sequently flights of several hundred
miles' length, which are common
enough over land, are infinitely more
difficult to carry out over the sea:
this is why all seaplane operations
have — unlike the work of land ma-
chines— occurred in close proximity
of permanent bases or mother-ships.

Notwithstanding their limitations
seaplanes have rendered exceeding-
ly useful services as tleet auxiliaries.
particularly in the Gallipoli cam-
paign, where gun-spotting seaplanes
directed the Allies" guns on targets
invisible but from the air. Sea-
planes have also played a notable
role in patrolling the coasts of the
warring nations and in detecting and
even destroying submarines and
mines. And in the battle of Jutland
tin- work of a solitary British sea-
plane pilot was recommended by
Nice-Admiral I'.eatty in the follow-
ing terms: "Lieut. V. J. Rutland,
i;. X.. for bis gallantry and per-
sistence in flying within close range
of four enemy light cruisers, in
order to enable accurate Informa-
tion to be obtained and transmitted
concerning them. Conditions at the
time made low Hying necessary."

The present trend in (lie design
of seaplanes (as well as of aero
planes) appears t<> be toward ma-

chines propelled by several motors
and propellers, the purpose of which

is to keep the machine aloft or at
least capable of returning to its base
even if one motor should break down
or lie destroyed bv the enemy.

THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN TROPHY

donated with tj bject <>f fostering the

:irt of aerial navigation, is now in the
permanent possession <>f Mr. Glenn II. ("ur-
tiss, who won it three times in succession.

AEKoN IUTICS 1 \ A.MIKH \

The Greal War lias had a very
beneficial influence on the American
aircraft industry; millions of dollars
worth of aeroplanes and motors were

AERONAUTICS

381

purchased in this country by the
Allies, chiefly for training purposes,

and the profits derived thereby have
enabled American manufacturers to
develop aeroplanes and engines
which begin to compare favorably
with the products of Europe. Among
the aeroplanes thus produced one
might mention the huge multiple en-
gined "flying boats" of Glenn H.
Curtiss ; a machine of this type is
now being developed for crossing the
Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ire-
land, a distance of 1,800 miles.

The important services the aerial
arms have rendered to the warring
nations has awakened the American
public to the realization that the
United States needs — and has so

far lacked — an air service adequate
to its policies; as a consequence the
Aero Club of America instituted the
National Aeroplane Fund which,
thanks to the generosity of patriotic
citizens, has enabled the National
Guard of various States to acquire
aeroplanes and train aviators, and
Congress appropriated a sum of over
$15,000,000 for the development of
aeronautics in the Navy and Army.
On July 13, 1916, President Wilson
crowned these measures by creating
the Aerial Reserve Corps, which is
nothing short of an aerial militia.
The Post Office Department is fur-
thermore considering the establish-
ment of several aeroplane- mail
routes.

AEROPLANE TYPES
On the left, a flying boat ; on the right, a tractor biplane

CHAPTER III.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY

By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA

NO list of the greatest modern
inventions fails to include
wireless telegraphy and tele-
phony. And it is perhaps equally
true to state that no invention is
regarded with as great awe by the
laity. Yet wireless communication
in its essentials is simple. There is
nothing truly mysterious in wireless
or radio telegraphy and telephony.

MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

WIRELESS

The real beginning of wireless
communication, or rather the propa-
gation of electric waves through
space and their subsequent detection
at remote points, is largely a matter
of opinion. Some authorities prefer
to look upon Steinheil of Munich,
Germany, as having taken the first
step toward radio communication.
For in 1838, Steinheil, following the
suggestion of Gauss, demonstrated
the feasibility of using the ground
as the return circuit for a wire tele-
graph system, which in a measure
is a form of wireless telegraphy in
the embryonic state; and what is
more, the work of Steinheil caused
much attention to be directed to the
possibilities of communication with-
out wires. Such names as Trow-
bridge, Preece, Rathenau, Strecker,
Morse, Lindsay, Wilkins, and Mel-
huish have been associated with the
conduction of electric currents
through bodies of water and througb
moist earth, largely through the in-
spiration offered by Steinheil's pio-
neer work.

Aside from the conduction method
of communication suggested by the
experiments of Steinheil, electro
magnetic induction between parallel
metallic conductors was suggested
and studied by Trowbridge, Preece,
Lodge and Stevenson. A combina-
tion of the conduction and induc-
tion principles also was the subject
of much experiment, and under the
guidance of Sir William Preece. aid-
ed by the British Postal Telegraph
Engineers, it became the basis of a
workable system of wireless com-
munication for short distances. How-
ever, for several reasons this system
did not lend itself to commercial
purposes, and hence nothing came
of it. Still another workable sys-
tem of communication without wires
was developed by Edison, Gilliland.
Phelps and W. Smith, utilizing the
principle of electrostatic induction
between conduct* »rs spaced some dis-
tance apart. The latter system was
primarily intended as a means of
communication to and from moving
railway trains.

However brilliant may have been
the conceptions of the various pio-
neer systems already referred to, the
real dawn of commercially practi-
cable wireless communication came
witl the scientific investigation of
electromagnetic waves, resulting in
a clear understanding of the genera-
tion, propagation, and detection of
these waves. Credit in large meas-
ure is due Maxwell, who, in 1865,
announced his remarkable electro-
magnetic theory of light. But Max-

Copyriglit by Munn & Co., Inc.

3S4

OtJR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

well's work, despite its profundity
and its rich and invaluable collec-
tion of mathematical data, was pri-
marily theoretical. As a result, its
full value as applied to the propa-
gation of electromagnetic waves was
not realized until 1888, when Hertz's
discoveries and practical investiga-
tions again attracted attention to
the subject. The work of this young
German scientist corroborated the
theories of Maxwell ; and so rich
in possibilities was the field opened
by Hertz that numerous scientific
workers in various lands set upon
the task of acquiring further knowl-
edge of the properties of the electro-
magnetic waves.

Among the early workers in the
field of electromagnetic transmission
of power was Nikola Tesla, who, in
is'.):!, conducted a series of specta-
cular experiments on high frequency
electric currents. In passing it must
not be forgotten that Prof. D. E.
Hughes, according to a paper pre-
pared by Sir William Crookes in
1S92, developed a system of trans-
mitting signals a few hundred yards
without connecting wires, using a
microphonic detector and telephone
receiver for the receiving station.
It appears that Prof. Hughes dis-
covered the remarkable property of
loose-contact filings to cohere under
the influence of electromagnetic
waves as far back as L879; but be-
cause of the fact that he did not
give his work sufficient publicity,
some twelve years later Prof. E.
Branly of Paris received all the

credit for the wireless coherer, which
played the leading pari in the pio-
neer days of actual radio communi-
cation. Using Branly's coherer as
a basis, wireless communication at-
tracted the attention of Dr. A. Muir-
head, ('apt. II. R. Jackson. R.X.. and
Prof. U. Threlfall. as well as I'rof.
A. S. Popoff of the Imperial Torpedo
School in Cronstadt, Russia, besides
many other lesser known investi-
gators.

Yet all that had been done until
this time was more in the nature of

laying a substantial foundation for
what was to follow. Much of the
work was indeed practicable; but
none of the investigators had settled
down to the development of com-
mercial wireless communication.

Then came Marconi. This young
Italian scientist, born at Bologna,
was keenly interested in the work
of Prof. Rhigi of the University of
Bologna, and it gave him the idea
for commercial wireless telegraphy.
June, 1895, witnessed the young
Italian experimenting with sending
and receiving apparatus on his
father's estate, the Villa Griffone,
near Rologna. To relate in detail
the ramifications of Marconi's early
work would require far more space
than can be devoted to this entire
wireless chapter, for the work he
undertook was slow and painstaking.
Although he had the advantages of
using various ideas developed by the
early investigators and of combining
these into a wireless system, each
idea by itself was crude and had
to be systematically developed.
These distances, covered with Mar-
coni's early apparatus, speak vol-
umes for the rate of progress made
by him: 1895, 30, 100, and 2,400
meters, or 1% miles: 1897, 14 miles;
1898, 20 miles: 1899, 85 miles: 1900,
well over 100 miles: 1001. trans-
atlantic transmission of the letter
"s" in the Morse code, over a dis-
tance of 2,200 miles. In the years
that followed, the progress made
was so rapid that long-distance com-
munication has now become quite
commonplace.

Radio telegraphy, as we know it
to-day, is not the invention of any
one man. Not unlike all other great
inventions it represents the labors
of numerous investigators and in-
ventors, many known to us and many
more unknown to us. Among the
better known later-day contributors
to wireless telegraphy are Lodge.
Muirhead. Salby. von Arco. Rraun.
Fleming, Fessenden, DeForest. Stone,
Shoemaker. Blondel, Artom, Pick-
ard. von Repel. Poulsen, and Pierce.

386

(ill! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TEAVEL
THROUGH SPACE

it would be difficult to explain
how electromagnetic waxes, which
arc not susceptible to our senses,
travel from a wireless transmitter
to a receiver at the astounding rate
of 186,300 miles per second, were it
not for the simple analogy offered
by a body of still water.

Suppose a stone is thrown into
a quiet pool of water. It will be
noticed that waves or ripples form
in perfect circles around the spot
where the stone struck the surface,
spreading out in ever-widening cir-
cles from the source. The ripples
near the center are big and readily
seen, while those some distance away
are small and barely discernible,
finally disappearing altogether, pro-
vided the body of water is sufficient-
ly large. In other words, the rip-
ples are largest near the source of
disturbance, but lose their strength
in a gradual decrease the farther
they are removed from the source.

Although according to appearances
the waves or ripples appear to form
at the spot where the stone hit the
surface, spreading out in ever-widen-
ing concentric circles, as a matter
of fact they form at the immediate
point where they appear. There is
absolutely no transference of water
from the center outward. Instead,
a certain amount of mechanical en-
ergy is transmitted through the body
of water, producing waves or rip-
ples at intervals. The water merely
acts as the conductor for the energy
imparted to it by the impact with
the stone. This may he readily
proved by placing a small chip of
wood at any spot a short distance
from the source of the disturbance:
it will lie noted that the chip re-
mains in the same spot, although it
rises and falls following the up and
down or rolling motion of the wa-
ter upon which it rests. If there
Were the actual movement of the
water from the center outward, the
chip, obviously, would move along
with the moving water

.Much in the same manner do elec-
tromagnetic waves react upon space,
or. to use the name given to the
medium through which these waves
are propagated, ether. Nothing act-
ually moves through ether in the
transmission of signals by wireless;
instead, the transmitting apparatus
imparts energy to the ether, which
in turn vibrates in much the same
manner as the pond of still water.
The vibrations spread through the
ether in every direction, following
the contour of the earth, until the
force is spent. Ether, it is well to
mention here, is a substance or medi-
um imagined by physicists in order
to explain the phenomena of light,
radiant heat, and electromagnetic
waves. The waves employed in
radio communication range from 300
feet to 30,000 feet in length, meas-
ured from one crest to the next,
just as in the instance of the rip-
ples on a pond. X-rays, on the other
hand, have a length of about 2.5
millionths of an inch ; actinic rays
of the maximum intensity, 10 mil-
lionths of an inch : light rays, from
10 to 18 millionths of an inch: and
heat rays of maximum intensity,
about 15 millionths of an inch.

WIRELESS TKANSMITTERS AND RE-
CE1V! ECS

For wireless communication it is
necessary to have a means of creat-
ing and imparting electromagnetic
waves to the ether, and a means of
intercepting and detecting these
same electromagnetic waves at a re-
mote point. The former is called
a transmitter, or sender, while the
latter is known as the receiver, or
receptor.

The most common form of trans-
mitter is one in which the elect ro-
magnetic waves, created by the
discharge of a condenser across a
suitable air gap, are imparted to the
ether by means of an elevated sys-
tem of Insulated conductors known
as an aerial, and a connection with
the earth or ground. The condenser
receives its charging current from a
transformer or induction coil, and

:;^s

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl'IiCKS

whenever it becomes overcharged it

discharges an instant later across a
gap in circuit with it. Since the
length of the wave generated by
a spark discharge is governed by
two factors, capacity (the measure
for the storage capacity of the con-
denser) and inductance (the length
of conductor in the wave-generating
circuit i. the circuit includes not only
the condenser and spark gap, but
a variable form of conductor or in-
ductance, as well. The latter is al-
ways in the form of a flat spiral, or
a helix. The adjustment of the
capacity and inductance in the wave-
generating circuit is known as tun-
ing, just as a musical instrument is
adjusted to emit a uote of a desired
pitch. P.y inserting a telegraph key
in the primary circuit of the trans-
former, or induction coil, it becomes
possible to generate waves at will;
and by the proper manipulation of
the telegraph key, an operator can
emit different trains of waves to
correspond with the dots and dashes
of any telegraphic code.

There are other methods of gen-
erating electromagnetic waves aside
from a condenser charged by a high
tension current furnished by trans-
former, or spark coil. Among them
may be mentioned the high fre-
quency alternator, capable of
generating current of a frequency
of over 50,000 cycles by purely
mechanical means. Several gen-
erators of high frequency current
have been built, and within the past
few years considerable progress* has

been made along this line, despite
the seemingly unsurmountable me-
chanical obstacles encountered at
the beginning. A purely mechanical
means of creating high frequency
current suitable for the electromag-
netic w»v*«s employed in radio tel-
egraphy and telephony is obviously
the most desirable, which accounts
for the persistent efforts of inven-
tors along these lines.

Another method of generating high
frequency currents is found in the
employmehl of sonic form of low-

tension arc. across the terminals of
which are shunted a condenser and
a variable inductance. With such an
arrangement high frequency current
is generated, the arc acting as the
gap across which discharges the cou-
denser. Whereas in the case of the
usual spark transmitters the con-
denser discharges or electromagnetic
waves take place in the form of sep-
arate trains, each train or group
comprising a number of sparks, each
succeeding one less powerful than
the one before, in the arc generator
the waves are continuous and of the
same, uniform strength. Thus the
spark transmitters have come to be
known as damped wave transmit-
ters because of their damped waves,
while the arc transmitters are known
as undamped wave transmitters. The
damping of the waves lends itself
to an analogy in the form of a sim-
ple pendulum: In the undamped
transmitter, the pendulum would be
kept swinging an equal distance
each swing, because the power would
be imparted so to accomplish this
regularity: while in the damped
transmitter, the power would be im-
parted at one swing and not again
for several swings, resulting in the
pendulum swinging over a lesser arc
each succeeding swing until the
power were again imparted to the
pendulum.

The electromagnetic waves, either
of the damped or undamped variety,
chopped up in short and long trains
to represent the desired characters
of any telegraphic code, have now
been propagated through ether. The
problem is not only to intercept them
hut also to detect their presence.

The first step in receiving electro-
magnetic waves is the erection of a
suitable system of elevated, insu-
lated wires, known as the aerial or
antenna, which serves to intercept
the electromagnetic waves, and to
lead tlie currents induced in the
wires down through the receiving
instruments to the ground.

The heart of any receiving set for
wireless telegraphy is that member

',90

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

which detects the presence of high
frequency currents flowing down
through the aerial and receiving ap-
paratus. It is known as the de-
tector. In the pioneer days of the
art, a glass tube containing two
electrode plugs between which was
placed a small quantity of metallic
tilings, served the purposes of detec-
tor. The action of the filings co-
herer, as this detector is known, is
simple: the high frequency current
passing through the mass of loose
filings possesses the property of
causing these to cohere together so
as to make a better contact between
the two metal plugs. The lowering
of the electrical resistance of the
filings is sufficient to permit the cur-
rent of a local battery to flow across
the bridge thus formed and operate
a relay, which in turn operates a
.Morse register that prints the sig-
nals in the form of dots and dashes
on a paper ribbon. Some suitable
form of tapper is used to shake the
filings apart after the high frequency
currents have ceased to flow through
them. The tapper, known as the
decoherer, is usually operated by
the relay.

The filings coherer, while possess-
ing the important advantage of al-
lowing a Morse register to be used
in conjunction with it. lias long
since ceased to be employed in com-
mercial wireless work, although it
remains the favorite form of demon-
stration apparatus for the class-
room. It has given way to infinitely
more sensitive detectors which are
used in conjunction with telephone
receivers worn on the bead of the
wireless operator. With the advent
ot" more sensitive detectors the range
of wireless transmitters has jumped
from the tens of miles to the hun-
dreds and even thousands of miles.

So numerous and varied are the
wireless detectors of to-day that even
a superficial description of each type
is precluded by space limitations.
Suffice ii to state that among the
most popular types of detectors are
the crystal rectifier, utilizing cer-

tain minerals and crystal formations
such as iron pyrites, /.incite, bornite,
galena, silicon, carborundum; the
electrolytic detector, which, while
exceedingly sensitive, has given way
to the first type because of the great-
er convenience of the crystal detec-
tors ; the magnetic detector, which
would be a truly ideal type were it
not for the fact that its sensitive-
ness is of a rather low order; and
the audion. which is the most suc-
cessful detector and the one in most
general use to-day.

Aside from the detector, a wire-
less receiving set comprises a tele-
phone receiver or receivers, and ad-
justable condensers and coils for
changing the capacity and induc-
tance of the receiving circuit to tune
it to any length of wave desired.
If a transmitter is emitting waves
of a length of 400 meters, for ex-
ample, a receiving set must be tuned
to the neighborhood of 400 meters
in order to receive the waves. And
while it is tuned ro receive those
waves, other waves of other wave-
lengths will not be heard in the re-
ceivers of the operator. Thus it is
possible for several transmitting sets
to be operating in one locality at the
same time, while the same number of
receiving sets are receiving, each
from the desired transmitter, with-
out interference from other trans-
mitters. Tuned or syntonic wireless
has reached a high degree of develop-
ment to-day. although much remains
to be accomplished.

After having developed their de-
tectors to the highest possible de-
gree of sensitiveness, wireless men
were confronted with the problem of
increasing still farther the range of
receiving apparatus. Solution was
found in the introduction of ampli-
fiers, or magnifiers of the weak cur-
rents in the detector circuit. Some
form of magnifiers are in reality an
ordinary telephone circuit, in that
the receiver, connected to the de-
tector, is capped over a microphone
transmitter, which in turn is elec-
trically connected to a powerful bat-

392

OUR (MINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

tery and another telephone receiver.
Thus the faint sounds of the tirst
telephone receiver are spoken into
the microphone, which in turn im-
presses them <>n :i circuit contain-
ing a loud-speaking receiver, or, ;it
least, a receiver that produces loud
sounds in the ears of the operator.
Other forms of amplifiers utilize a
modified form of the audion detec-
tor. In the one-step amplifiers of
this type, an amplification or mag-
nification of from 6 to 10 times is
attained; in the two-step amplifier
from 60 to KM); and in the three-step
from ('.no to 1,000, according to Dr.
DeForest, the inventor of the audion
amplifier. Thus it will be appreci-
ated that the sensitiveness of the
detector is materially improved by
the use of an amplifier: and it is
the combination of highly sensitive
detectors and amplifiers more than
anything else that accounts for the
remarkable long-distance communi-
cation of present-day wireless.

TELEFHONV WITHOUT WIRES

Wireless telephony differs from
wireless telegraphy only in details:
for in general principles involved
they are identical. If the wave
trains of a spark transmitter were
sufficiently close together to be above
the range of audibility when received
in the telephone receivers of the
operator at the receiving station, if
would he hut a matter of a few
slight changes, such as replacing the
telegraph key with a microphone, to
convert the average wireless tele-
graph transmitter into a radio tele-
phone set.

As it is. the requirements of suc-
cessful radio telephony begin with
a generator of undamped waves of
very high frequency, so that the
wave trains when received are above
the range of audibility.

I'M il recently some form of elec-
tric arc was. and still is. employed
for generating the high frequency
current for a radio telephone trans-
mitter. Although on occasions fair
success attends the employment of

arc generators, a radio telephone sys-
tem based on the use of such gen-
erators cannot he the ideal system
of the future. An electric arc is
necessarily unsteady: its electrodes
usually burn away at a high rate,
resulting in sputtering and frequent
readjustment to bring the electrodes
closer together to make up for the
consumption of electrode material.
A constant variation in the consump-
tion of current results in fluctuations
in the high frequency current, which
is fatal to clear transmission. Yet.
despite the shortcomings of the "lec-
tric arc as a generator of high fre-
quency currents, much progress has
been made with it by numerous in-
vestigators.

A Danish investigator, Poulsen,
has done much toward applying
and improving the arc generator for
wireless telephone purposes. More
recently. Colin and .Teance of France
have done considerable work on an
arc telephone, on occasions succeed-
ing in communicating over a range
of several hundred miles. In Amer-
ica. Dubillier, Collins. DeForest and
other investigators have in the past
devoted considerable attention to the
arc generator with a fair degree of
success.

Outside of the microphone, which
must he able to handle large vol-
umes of current without injury, in
a wireless telephone set the arc gen-
erator is the center of interest: and
likewise it is true that the generator
is the point of divergence between the

various systems. The .lanke system,
for instance. Is a variation of the
Poulsen arc. in that the arc is placed
in liquid alcohol to insure greater
steadiness. To impress the voice on
the high frequency current, a special
water-cooled multiple microphone is
used. The TYK system, on the
other hand, is not an American sys-
tem like the former, hut a Japanese
system developed by Torikato. Its
Chief value lies in its utmost sim-
plicity. The system consists of a
500-volt arc between points of burnt
magnetite and brass, shunted by a

394

OtJR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

circuit with a rather Large capacity
and a small inductance. A heavy-cur-
rent microphone is placed in scries
with the aerial. Although it is sup-
posed that the TYK system is re, ll.\
an arc system, the inventor is of
the opinion that the result produced
is a quenched spark of spark fre-
quency beyond the limit of audibil-
ity. By a "quenched spark" is meant
;i discharge that does not oscillate
to any appreciable extent: in other
words, the discharge rapidly dies
out or it is highly damped.

Various quenched spark systems
have also been tried, notably that of
Ditcham, hut as a general thing
systems based on the use of quenched
spark generators do not possess
good speech quality. The speech
quality of the TYK system is re-
ported to be poor, which confirms,
to some extent, the helief that its
generator is a form of quenched
spark gap.

High frequency alternator sys-
tems have been used as far hack as
L906 by Fessenden, hut as in the
case of their application to wire-
less telegraphy, even to-day they are
considered largely in the lighl of ex-
periments because of their prohibi-
tive cost, their low frequency and
consequently long wave length, and
the difficulty of speed regulation.

The reaction vacuum tube sys-
tems are the last word in radio tele-
phony, and judging from the results
obtained thus far with them there
can he hut little doubl that they
possess the qualities of the ideal
apparatus of the future. Marconi.
DeForest, and others have, of late.
investigated the possibilities of the
reaction vacuum tube in connection
with radio telephony. DeForest has
developed a tuhc which is a modi-
fication of his audion amplifier.
Known as the oscillion bulb or
tube, this generator, together with

WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS USED WITH SUCCESS BY COLIN AND JEANCE OF
FRANCE IN TRANSMITTING THE SPOKEN WORD OVER SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY

395

a potentiometer for close regulation,
filament rheostat, impedance coils,
loading inductance, telephone trans-
former coil, microphone transmitter,
fixed condenser and minor accessor-
ies, a current supply for the filament
and another of 150 to 300 volts for
the production of the high frequency
currents, forms a complete radio tel-
ephone for short distance transmis-
sion. For long distance work a num-
ber of oscillions are employed, to-
gether with a higher voltage — as
high as 1,500 volts for a set with a
range of 150 to 200 miles.

Wireless telephony owes much to
the work of the engineers of the
American Telephone & Telegraph
Company who, in the latter part of
1915, succeeded in telephoning by
wireless from Washington to Paris,
and from Washington to Hawaii, the
latter a distance of 4,900 miles. It
is understood that a form of reaction
vacuum tube was employed in large
numbers in generating the high fre-
quency currents required.

At the present moment it seems
that wireless telephony, long a lab-
oratory experiment, is at last a com-
mercially practicable means of com-
munication. Even so, however, the
great expense of installations for
long distance work may cause its
universal use to be postponed for
years to come, although it is safe
to prophesy the widespread employ-
ment of short-distance wireless tele-
phone sets for ship-to-shore com-
munication in the immediate future.

HOW THE WORLD USES WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY

The later-day pioneers in wireless
telegraphy, even in their wildest
flights of fancy, never realized to
what extent their work would play
a part in the commercial world and
in military and naval affairs. True,
they prophesied the transmission of
energy by means of electromagnetic
waves on a vast scale, and even to-
day there does not appear to be
much promise of success along these
lines. But the fact remains that

communication without wires has
been applied to a wide range of
uses other than those originally
planned.

Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore com-
munication was the original aim of
wireless men — radio telegraphy was
to be a maritime invention. To-day
the greatest employment of wireless
remains on the water rather than on
land: and always will its greatest
field be on shipboard. There is hard-
ly an ocean-going vessel carrying
passengers that is not equipped with
wireless, for laws have been enacted
obliging such ships to carry radio
apparatus because of the security it
affords the traveler on water. So
numerous and powerful are the land
stations operating in conjunction with
the ships that it is very seldom in-
deed when a ship is out of touch with
land. Ocean travelers receive the
news of the world every day, which
is flashed out by powerful stations
in America and Europe.

Serious work has been done in es-
tablishing radio telegraph and tele-
phone communication between mov-
ing trains, notably that of the Lack-
awanna Railroad. Although on cer-
tain occasions a range of between
fifty and one hundred miles has been
covered between a moving train and
fixed station, the results on the
whole have not been satisfactory.
Perhaps it is that the tests have been
premature, and that a suitable sys-
tem of communication, somewhat
different from existing ones, must be
developed for this particular pur-
pose. Employing an aerial eighteen
inches above the roof of a steel car,
which is obviously grounded through
the rails, it becomes evident that it
is almost impossible to secure any
distance with a wireless apparatus
installed and operated under these
conditions.

The European War has given
especial impetus to wireless, partic-
ularly as applied to aircraft. In de-
signing radio apparatus for airships
and aeroplanes due consideration
must be given to the extremely lim-

396

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

ited space available on such craft,
and the limited weight thai can be
carried. In the case of aeroplanes

the guy wires and other metallic
parts of the machine arc generally
used as the ground (the capacity

ground), while the aerial is in the
form of a trailing wire that is paid
nut from a reel after the machine
has reached the proper height Most
aeroplane sets have a range of from
live to thirty-five miles, and because
of the intense noise and vibration
of the engines it is a very difficult
matter to receive messages on hoard ;
in fact, military operations make
due allowance for this condition and
depend upon the aeroplane wireless
operator to devote his attention al-
most exclusively t<> sending.

On board airships of the Zeppelin
or the flexible types it is possible to
employ more powerful apparatus,
hence a greater range can be cov-
ered. A typical airship installation
consists of a transformer, quenched
spark gap, capacity and induc-
tance, aerial wire lowered down
from a winch, ammeter, rapid-change
switch for different wave-lengths,
and an alternating current generator
driven off one of the engines of the
airship. Such a set. weighing about
fifty-five pounds without the alter-
nator, has a range between <".() and
120 miles. The aerial wire is over
600 feet long when fully paid out.

Armies in the field employ porta-
ble wireless sets for insuring com-
munication between scattered com-
mands. Some sets for use in rugged

country are arranged t<> be carried

on mule-back, and are known as
pack sets. But the most common
wireless sets are those mounted on
two wagons, one for the generating
equipment and the other for the
wireless apparatus proper. The
aerial of these sets is arranged in
the form of an umbrella, spreading
out in all directions from a common
pole. The latter is usually of alum-
inum or an alloy of that metal, made
up of a number of sections which

can be readily coupled together,

Within live minutes a mast of this
kind can be erected, together with
the aerial and the counterpoise or
capacity ground. Still another form
of portable military set is the auto-
mobile truck set. which is carried
as one unit on a powerful motor
truck, and has a range of well over
one hundred miles under favorable
conditions.

The European War has served to
demonstrate the value of long-dis-
tance wireless stations for maintain-
ing communication between widely
separated countries. Germany has
set a mark in the art by maintain-
ing telegraphic communication with
neutral countries after finding
herself surrounded by enemies on all
sides and isolated from the outside
world. Through the wireless station
at Nauen, near Berlin, the German

authorities have been able to give
each day to the neutral world the
news of the war from the Teuton
point of view, without danger of the
news being censored or altered in
any way by enemy powers. Much of
the telegraphic traffic between Ger-
many and the United States during
the war has been handled through
the Nauen and Eilvese stations in
Germany, and the Tuckerton and
Sayville stations in the United
States

The Allied powers too. although
not isolated from the outside world.
have made good use of wireless tel-
egraphy in keeping in touch with
each other and in maintaining coin
munications between their scattered
armies throughout the globe. It is
understood thai the Allies in the
West and Kussia have kept in touch
by wireless telegraphy, the Eiffel

tower having been used in the West,
and a powerful station at Petrograd,

for the purpose. Wireless has also
been employed to an unprecedented
degree in keeping in touch with war-
craft of all kinds, even to the sub-
marine boats fitted with folding
masts that can be hastily erected to
support an aerial when the craft
are on the surface.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY

397

Upon the completion of the Euro-
pean War a great chain of wireless
stations encircling the globe will
be put into operation. It is not
unlikely that these stations may soon
prove a formidable competitor to the
cables, although it is doubtful if they
can ever be more than a supplement
to the older form of inter-continental
communication. Many of the world-
encircling wireless stations repre-
sent the very latest phase of the art,
with ranges of thousands of miles.
and arranged to receive and transmit
messages simultaneously and with-
out interference.

Among other uses of wireless is
the collection and distribution of

weather information to seamen and
others, which service is of great,
value to all mankind. Wireless has
also been applied with success to
the problems of higher surveying,
particularly by the French in the
Sahara and on the Congo in Africa,
and by Capt. Edwards on the boun-
dary between Brazil and Bolivia. A
careful comparison of time between
distant points has also been rendered
possible by wireless, which, because
of the high velocity at which the
electromagnetic waves travel, can be
considered as being practically an
instantaneous means of communica-
tion for such distances as are en-
countered on this earth.

RECENT WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS DEVELOPED BY DR. LEE DE FOREST,
EMPLOYING THE 0SCILLI0N OR OSCILLATING-VALVE FORM OF GENERATOR

MOVING PICTUKE ACTORS IN SELF-CONTAINED DIVING SUITS, TAKING PART IN
AN UNDERWATER PHOTOPLAY SCENE

CHAPTER IV.
MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING

By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA

PERHAPS it is because pictures
are the ultimate universal lan-
guage that a world-wide fascina-
tion attaches to motion pictures and
their production. Or it may be due
to the romance of picture making —
the story in back of the screen story,
which so often excels the tale of the
film in point of human interest.
But whatever may be the reason,
the fact stands that no modern in-
dustry commands as great interest
among the multitudes as motion pic-

tures, not only in the finished prod-
uct but in the manufacturing

processes.

PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE THOUSANDS

From a purely mechanical point
of view, motion pictures are nothing
more than a number of photographs
of any one object or group of ob-
jects taken at frequent intervals on
a strip of film. The exposures are
made at the rate of sixteen per
second; and each picture — a photo-

ARTISANS OF THE FILMS, THEIR STOCKROOM AND THEIR WORKSHOP

(1) Carpenters, painters and electricians at work in the erection of a Vitagraph set.

i2l Where the furniture employed in Lasky motion picture productions is

stored. i3) The woodworking shop of the Lasky western studio

Copyright by Muim & Co., Inc.

Km

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

graph as perfect as the best of lenses
and the highest photographic skill
<;in produce — measures i>ut one Inch
in width by three-quarters inch in
height. Perforations are provided
along either edge of the film, with
which the mechanism of the camera
engages fur the purpose of intermit-
tently drawing the celluloid strip
through the rays of light coming in
through the lens, the object being
to move the film a trifle over three-
quarters of an inch each time an
exposure has been made, so as to
bring a fresh section of film in the
path of the light rays.

The film that is exposed in the
camera is generally a negative. It
is developed in much the same man-
ner as an amateur film, although
its great length calls for the em-
ployment of a rack or a drum on
which to wind it in order to facili-
tate handling. The negative devel-
oped and dried, it is passed through
a printing machine together with
fresh unexposed positive stock so as
to make as many positive prints as
may be required. It is the positive
print of any motion picture produc-
tion that is passed through the pro-
jecting machines in theaters and
viewed on the screen by the millions.

But let us look in back of the
screen: let us glance into the activi-
ties of those who make the him pro-
ductions possible, but who always
remain unknown to the audience.
while the actors who perform no
greater part in the work become
famous.

A STTBMABTNE THAT NEVEB SAW
TIIE SEA

The audience is tense with excite-
ment ;is the hero in the film play
struggles frantically with the con-
trol apparatus of a submarine that
is fast sinking to the ocean bottom,
because of the constantly rising
water in its hold. And as he strug-
gles at his post the water pours in
on him through an ugly gash made
in the conning tower of the crafi
by an enemy destroyer. Perhaps it
is the climax in a gripping drama,

then again, it may be the big scene
or "punch" in a hilarious comedy.
But, however that may be. the real
ism of the scene has the desired
effect on the audience. What dan-
gers these motion picture folk incur
in their daily work! is the general
comment of the unsuspecting public.

Several months ago the scene in
question was acted, not. as might
be supposed, in the interior of a
submarine, but in a quiet corner of
a motion picture studio. The "•sub-
marine" was an elaborate structure
of wood, metal, and plenty of paint;
life-sized to be sure, but only of a
sufficient length or depth to repre-
sent the particular compartment
portrayed in the picture story.

For weeks the artisans of the stu-
dio workshops had worked in build-
ing this pseudo submarine: and be-
fore the camera crank was turned
the technical director had gone over
every detail of its construction to
make sure that it emulated success-
fully the interior of a modern sub-
marine. Then the studio hands
built a tank around the scenery.
The "set." as the scenery for a
studio scene is called, was now
ready for the director.

The director, being unable to
carry out his programme of photo-
graphing certain outdoor or "loca-
tion" scenes on a certain day because
of rain or poor light, decided to stay
at the studio ami photograph the in-
terior scenes called for in the
scenario or working plan of his pic-
ture. After rehearsing the action

of this particular scene several
times, the lamps Hashed up and the
camera man took his place by the
side of his camera. At the com-
mand of the director one of the
Stage hands climbed up on the deck

of the "submarine," pulling a heavy
hose after him. which he placed in
the opening of the conning tower.
The water was turned on. anil it
flowed through the hose and passed
down upon the back of the actor
playing the part of tlie hero-sailor
struggling with the control mechan-
ism of a balky underwater craft.

MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING

401

The water, bounded on all sides by
the improvised tank of wood and
rubberized canvas, slowly rose in
the "submarine" interior. The cam-
era, which all the while was record-
ing the action, was naturally so
focused as to take in only the de-
sired portion of the setting — the
sides of the tank did not show in
the film. The scene was a success.
Typical of the striving of all
American producers for realism is
the foregoing instance. A half
dozen years ago the audience of the
average picture theater was not as
critical as the audience of to-day.
Formerly a director depended solely
upon a good story and fair acting
to make a film production a suc-
cess ; whereas to-day the director
strives to reinforce these two essen-

have even the most insignificant
details accurate and confidence-
inspiring.

JACKS — AND MASTERS OF ALL TRADES

No motion picture studio would
be complete without its carpenter
shop and staff of expert workmen.
There are so many things that must
be built especially for the pictures
that a complete equipment of wood-
working and metalworking machines
and a skilled gathering of artisans
are an absolute necessity.

It would be impossible to describe
with any pretense to thoroughness
the range of work turned out by the
studio workshops. It is only by
offering a few examples of what
they do regularly that a general idea
of the scope of their toil can be

1

J

it.

/v' - ...

IS;'

1
I

Xtifeki

1 --:--'

BACKGROUNDS MADE TO ORDER TO FIT THE FILM STORIES
(1) A set representing the living room of a country home. Note how the stairway at
the left terminates in a wooden platform, beyond the range of the camera, in this Than-
houser set. (2) A set representing an office. The players at the left do not appear in the
Gaumont film being produced, for they are out of the range of the camera.

tials with the utmost realism of
scenery. It is imperative, claim the
producers, that the pictures be re-
plete with realism ; the audience
must not be permitted to recall the
fact that after all the scenes in
many instances are but improvised
backgrounds and the necessary
pieces of furniture taken from the
stock room or property room of the
studio. In brief, the audience must
be made to forget the mechanical
end of picture production ; and to
this end every effort is made to

gained. One day they may be build-
ing a safe of light wood or com-
pressed paper — accurately made
even to the bolt mechanism — which
may bring forth roars of laughter
from an audience months hence when
it is dropped on the head of one of
the comedians in a film play. They
may be called upon to build an
aeroplane, closely following the
lines of a genuine machine that is
to be used in the scenes of actual
flying. The workmen may perhaps
put in one or two weeks' work in

402

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

building the aeroplane, exercising
much ingenuity in its construction
As Likelj as nol the tires of the
landing gear may be made from
short lengths of rubber hose or can-
vas tube, filled with sawdust. And
the same degree of ingenuity may be
repeated a dozen times or more in
the construction of the machine: all
this work to appear for a few sec-
onds on the screen, and probably
doomed to be blown to pieces or
burned to ashes. The men may turn
to the construction of a mirth-pro-
voking hose-cart or fire-wagon for
the tire department of some imag-
inary rural community. Again, his-
torical or period plays may keep the
artisans busy building a replica of
the first steamboat, or making an
old stage-coach, or a Roman gladia-
tor's weapons and shield, or even
an ancient catapult. All these things
are in the day's work.

In a recent war play. "The Fall
of a Nation," {'our huge siege guns
figured conspicuously in the battle
scenes between defenders and in-
vaders. Each gun was a faithful
reproduction of the famous Krupp
28-millimeter siege howitzers, mount-
ed on caterpillar wheels. When
seen on the screen, even a military
expert would hi' apt to mistake the
guns for their counterparts busily
engaged on European battlefields. As
a matter of fact, however, these
"guns" were made of wood, and at
the time represented perhaps one of
the most intricate pieces of work
yet undertaken by the film artisans.
They were a faithful copy of the
actual pieces, even down to the re-
coil cylinders which actually func-
tioned following the explosion of a
charge of black powder in the metal-
lined barrel. The guns were said to

have COSl the producers of the film
some $10,000 each, ami although the

amount appears rather high at first.

nevertheless it serves to accentuate
the great amount of preliminary re-
search work and designing that had

to he carried out before the actual
construction began. And here again

the producers insisted that if ilh

L'uns were to he used at ail. they
must he accurate enough to pass
before the most critical audience
without arousing undue suspicions.
The producer of a submarine
story, which, in its main essentials,
closely follows the theme of Jules
Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues
Under the Sea." recently endeavored
to secure the loan of a United States
submarine from the Navy Depart-
ment, without success, so the story
ltocs. Whereupon he set out to build
a submarine of sheet iron, with a
length of over 100 feet, a beam of
1." feet, and a draft of -I feet. The
shell had to he of sufficient strength
to withstand a submergence of fort\
feet deep. By means of tanks the
submarine could take on water in
order to settle down beneath the
waves, while compressed air tanks
permitted of blowing out the water
ballast when the craft was to he
brought up to the surface again.
The submarine was tit ted with a
torpedo tube capable of discharging
a regulation torpedo. In all. six
months' time was expended in build-
ing this submarine, which closely
followed the lines of the "Nautilus,"
the famous craft of Captain Nemo;
indeed, the Navy submarines were
hardly suitable to represent the fic-
titious craft, which may have been
one reason why the producer de

cided to construct a special sub-
mersible, lilted with a lock in its
bottom through which divers wear
bag self-contained suits could pas-
out to the ocean floor.

In a certain production. -'The
World and the Woman," there was
to he a garden scene during a thun-
der storm. One of the features of
the scene was a driving rain, while
another was ;i Hush of lightning.
The scenario called for these things:
there was nothing for the studio
artisans to do hut to produce the
desired effect.

An aeroplane propellei was

mounted on a substantial support.
and to it was applied the power of
an electric motor through belting.
An artificial garden set was soon

404

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

arranged and housed in a suitable
shelter to make it dark — the photo-
graphing took place in the yard of
the studio, in the middle of a beau-
tiful day. Above the set was ar-
ranged a trough, perforated with
many holes to allow water to drop
below on the scenery. When every-
thing was ready, the electric motor
was started, causing the aeroplane
propeller to blow up a veritable hur-
ricane through the set. Stage hands
with watering cans began to pour
water into the trough, which fell
in the form of rain only to be driven
at an angle across the setting, simu-
lating a powerful gale. And at the
propitious moment another stage
hand set off a flashlight, giving the
desired flash-of -lightning effect on
the film.

All of which bespeaks well of the
skill of the artisans of the screen.

Most of their work is done in w 1

and canvas, although occasionally
they resort to metal, as witness the
submarine already mentioned. Papier
macho, plaster of Paris, compressed
fiber and clay are also used in pro-
fusion, especially in the making of
statues, ornate panels, and other
work of a similar nature, forming
pari of elaborate sets.

The equipment of most motion
picture studios is usually such as

would do justice to a thriving wood-
working shop and machine shop
combined. A typical comedy-pro-
ducing studio in southern California,
for instance, has over $2,000 worth
of woodworking equipment in its
carpenter shop, while the stock of
lumber constantly on hand and
oilier items are said to bring the
total up to $4,000. The concern em-
ploys regularly over seventy-five
carpenters.

BUILDING INTERIORS TO FIT THE STORY

The interior settings of a film
play require the closest attention on
the part of the producers. For here
again the constant demand for ac-
curacy and realism is paramount.
The smallest details must be
watched. If the director calls for a
tenement house scene, the stage car-
penters must build him a dilapi-
dated hall and stairs, and small.
squalid rooms. The scene must ap-
pear much the worse from wear and
old age — the steps must look worn;
the walls must be marred, with here
and there a hole in the plaster; and
there must be dirt a-plenty. Again.
if the director calls for the home of
a rich man. it is necessary that he
state what kind of rich man the
film author had in mind. Is he a
wealthy man from a family of long

BRAINS AND SKILL AT WORK IN THE MOTION PICTURE STUDIO
At the l«'f i : The technical director of the Vitagraph studio supervising the arrangement
<>f the furnishings in an elaborate set. At the rij.'ht: film artisans at \vurk, making the
various objects required in Vitagraph pictures.

406

OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

standing, or is he a nouveau richet
If he belong to the former class.
the furnishings arc to be of a quiet,
harmonious design, with the paint-
ings and other ornamentation typi-
fying good taste: while if he belong
to the latter, the furnishings must
lie of a garish sort. For it is in
this manner that the motion picture
producer endeavors to amplify the
type of man whose home is repre-
sented. Ami motion picture tradi-
tions have it that a man with newly-
acquired wealth must have garish
tastes, and that a tenement house
must always he old. dirty, and much
the worse from excessive wear. In
other words, exaggeration is prac-
ticed in order to leave little to the
imagination of the audience.

Obviously, it would not do to
leave the selection of furnishings

and their proper arrangement to

stage hands and carpenters, and ac-
cordingly the demand for accuracy

and realism has brought into exist-
ence ;t new type of executive in the

til in industry the technical director,
or art director as he is sometimes
called. To him falls the task of
reading through the synopsis or
scenario of a film story, followed by
the supervision of the erection of
sets. lie is responsible for the ar-
rangement of the furnishings, even
down to the smallest details, as well

as for the costuming of the players.
However, he is not responsible for

the action part of a scene; that task
remains, as ever, the work of the
director.

The technical director must he a
veritable human encyclopaedia — a
man of remarkably broad knowledge
and experience. He must be well
read ; and what he does not know
he must lie able to "dig up" at short
notice. Here is how his knowledge
and experience are applied :

If a scene is laid in a certain
COUntrj and the I iine is of a different
century, he must know what gar-
ments the players are to wear, the
accouterments of the soldiers, the
et Iquel te of t he period and country.

the furnishings of the interiors, the
head-dress of the women, and a
thousand and one other details.

Perhaps actual incidents are most
convincing in Illustrating how the
directors strive for accuracy, and
how the absence of technical direc-
tion may be fatal to an otherwise
perfect production. The story is told
of how Irvin Cobb, the noted Ameri-
can writer, was visiting a prominent
I. os Angeles studio while a director
was rehearsing a scene of a war
play in which a regiment of Ger-
man soldiers were marching through
a Belgian village. To add what he
considered a touch of com fort
and naturalness to the scene, the
director had the men leave their
coats unbuttoned. Mr. Cobb, then
only recently returned from the war
/.one. was horrified at this gross mis-
representation of facts. lie did QOl
hesitate to tell the director that at
■no time do the Hermans have their
coats unbuttoned while actually on
the march or on duty. The director
was grateful for the tip, for he
realized the humiliation that might
have been his if the otherwise per
feet scene were held up to ridicule

by the better-informed of the mil-
lions who would ultimately view the
picture. At the same time the au-
thor also commented on the wearing
of the Iron Cross decoration, which
the director had insisted the men
should wear conspicuously, whereas
it is actually tucked away with only
its ribbon showing. Can there he
any doubt of the necessity of a tech-
nical director".'

To return to interior settings:
These represent one of the big items
of expense in the production of a
film. One reason is that the average
set can he used in one production
only, after which it must he dis
mantled. In the earlier days the
audience might not have commented
on seeing the same pieces of furni-
ture used several times. Bui today
the audience is more observing and
will soon detect any attempt to use
the same lamp, settee, or other fur-

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

nishings repeatedly. Conspicuous
repetition has got to be avoided by
the producers. And as in the in-
stance of the garments worn by the
players, the furniture must be in
keeping with the last word in in-
terior furnishings. So every studio
maintains a large room or several
rooms in which an almost endless
variety of furnishings is stored.

The walls of an interior set are
generally built of compressed paper
or lifdit hoard, hacked up with
framework and props, to facilitate
the work of erection and destruc-
tion. Tremendous quantities of the
necessary materials are employed in
the course of a year, as witness
some 50,000 feet or more of com-
pressed paper board used by a lead-
ing comedy producer, together with
over 500,000 feet of lumber. The
same concern spends over $1,800 for
some 15,000 n.lls of wall paper each
year, with which to cover the walls
of its sets.

The cost of even the most modest
set runs up into the hundreds of
dollars, for it must lie remembered
that practically every set must he
built and decorated to order, and
tilled with the necessary furniture,
which may not he used for a long
time to come. Elaborate sets run
up into the thousands of dollars.
A good restaurant or cabaret scene
may cost from .Sl'.imki to $5,000, de-
pending upon its elaborateness and
size. A setting calling for intricate
electric lighting effects sometimes
exceed-, the $5,000 mark, for in-
stance, the witches' scene in the re-
cent production of "Macbeth," star-
ring Sir Ilcrhert Beerbohm Tree,
which is said to have cost over
$10,000 because of the elaborate ap-
paratus for producing the weird lire
effects.

IX THE LAND OK TWO-DIMENSIONED

81 i:i i i i res
The film artisan finds his Litest
field of endeavor in the outdoor sets,
for under the open skies his under-
takings are not hindered by space
limitations and can therefore as-

sume the tnosl gigantic proportions.
Here again, the striving for realism
is the first consideration; here the
technical director must exercise his
knowledge of architectural design
covering i-vi-vy period in history and
every part of the world.

Perhaps the greatest set that has
ever been constructed up until the
time of writing was one represent-
ing the ancient city of Babylon, em-
ployed in the gigantic production
'•Intolerance." On the front of this
huge setting— the side that faced
the camera— there rose high walls
painted to simulate stone. 100 feet
in height and adorned with reliefs
of strange winged creatures and ele-
phants. The towers of the set stood
135 feet high, and the various struc-
tures covered a ten-acre tract of
land in Hollywood. Cal., just outside
of Los Angeles. For more than six
months the carpenters, masons, con-
crete workers and painters were
busied with the set. and the cost of

the work is reported to have I n

in excess of $50,000.

nut slightly less pretentious was
the set erected at an approximate
(,"st of $35, ». representing the pal-
ace, house of parliament, prison,
royal court, and adjacent buildings
in a mythical country featured in
the production ••Civilization." The
first spadeful of earth in prepara-
tion for the erection of the set was
turned in .May. 1915. The completed
set was ready for use in November
of the same year. Into its construc-
tion went thirty carloads. ,,r ap-
proximately 600,000 feet, of lumber.
Class valued at a total of $4,000 was
necessary for the several hundred
windows, while tons upon tons of
cement and plaster were used as the
other principal materials. For the
steps of the largest building alone
ten tons of cement was used. The
sidewalks, with their curbings, meas-
ured some 1,200 feet, and twenty
men were employed for three months
laying them out and arranging the
parkings between them. Trees.
shrubbery and lamps were among

MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING

409

the ornaments placed within the
boundaries of the set. Covering an
area of over six and one half acres,
the set has stood atop one of the
hills in southern California, endur-
ing the elements successfully as
though it were intended as a perma-
nent structure.

It is principally in portraying for-
eign scenes that the film artisans
are called upon to build elaborate
sets. Years ago, before the industry
had reached its present high stand-
ard, companies traveled abroad in
order to produce plays at the actual
locations called for by the scenario.
To-day, in marked contrast, the pro-
ducers find it easier to bring the
foreign or distant spots to the stu-
dio, literally speaking. Accuracy
enables them to convince the au-
dience that the scenes have been
laid in the country called for by the
story. All parts of the world have
been brought to the foothills of Cali-
fornia, the shores of Florida, and
the edge of the Palisades of New

FIRST MOVING PICTURE STUDIO IN THE
U. S., BUILT IN 1905

This structure was mounted on pivots so
that it could constantly be turned to keep
the sunlight streaming in through its crude
skylight.

Jersey, where the producers have
better laboratory facilities, under-
stand the light conditions, can secure
experienced players — and savp time.
Typical instances of foreign sets
have been the barracks of Delhi,
India, and a street in a village of a

mythical country, recently erected
and used by a Western producer.
The former consisted of seven indi-
vidual structures and entailed an
expenditure of $3,00(1; the latter
represented a street lined with
houses of solid construction. The
houses were made of plaster-covered
timbers, while the stone walls and
trees were handled with great care
to obtain correctness of detail. The
entire set required about six weeks
to build and involved an outlay of
perhaps $5,000.

There is practically no end to the
elaborate outdoor sets erected by
motion picture producers. In the
production of "Ramona" it was said
that over 1,800 sets were especially
built for the play, and that the pic-
turesque Spanish monastery for one
of the sets cost some $10,000.

A commendable piece of work was
the set representing the temple of
an Aztec monarch in the sixteenth
century, which was used in the pro-
duction "The Captive Cod." Its
framework was built of timbers, but
the body was of plaster plaques.
About 7.000 of these plaques were
required ; and the total cost of the
set is said to have been $3,000.

A set representing a border town
on the line separating Mexico from
the United States, for use in a typi-
cal Western drama, was recently
constructed at a cost of $1,500. It
consisted of fifteen buildings, each
entirely of frame construction. While
the cost of the village was not great,
at the time it was regarded by film
men as one of the most realistic sets
ever built for the screen.

Thousands of other sets might be
described, for they come and go
without end. P.ut enough instances
have been cited to prove that the
production of motion pictures is a
costly enterprise if realism is to be
secured. Also, there is to be found
no more skilled and ingenious arti-
san than the artisan of the screen,
whose work, generally unappre-
ciated, plays so conspicuous a part
< in the remarkable productions of
our day.

CHAPTER V.

THE REALM OF THE AIR

By C. F. TALMAX

THE gaseous envelope of the
earth which we call the
atmosphere is interesting not
only as the environment of life, in
all its forms, but also as the seat
of various remarkable physical
phenomena. Considered especially
with reference to their biological,
and above all their human, relations,
the activities of the atmosphere
are known collectively as weather;
but the study of the atmos-
phere, the science we call Mete-
orology, is broader than the
study of weather. Hence, if weather
is important, and everybody knows
that it is immensely so, in terms of
health, comfort and dollars, meteor-
ology is still more important. This
science ought to be, but is not yet,
represented by professorships in
every university in the land.

EXTENT AND COMPOSITION OF THE
ATMOSr-HERE

The lower part of the atmosphere
is the densest because it is com-
pressed by the weight of the air
above it. Thus it happens that, al-
though the total depth of the at-
mosphere is probably at least 300
miles, one-half of its mass., i.e., one-
half of the quantity of matter in it,
lies below an altitude of about three
and one-half miles above sea-level,
while about seven-eighths lies below
the ten-mile level. Above about five
miles the atmosphere is too rare (or
rather the oxygen in it is too rare)
to support life. The highest ice-
clouds seldom occur higher than
ten miles. Storms hardly ever reach

this height. In short, the phenomena
of life and the phenomena of weath-
er are confined to a layer of air so
shallow, in proportion to the dimen-
sions of our globe, that on the sur-
face of an orange it would be rep-
resented by a sheet of paper thin-
ner than the average book-paper.

Dry air is a mixture (not a chemi-
cal compound) of several gases, viz.,
about 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per
cent oxygen, 1 per cent argon, and
0.03 per cent carbon dioxide, by vol-
ume, besides minute quantities of
hydrogen, neon, krypton, xenon,
helium and possibly other sub-
stances. At levels habitable by man
the air always contains invisible
water vapor (from a small trace to
about 5 per cent), and usually small
and variable amounts of ozone, am-
monia, nitric acid, and other gases,
which, on account of their irregular
occurrence, are not classed among
the normal constituents of the atmos-
phere. Lastly, the lower air always
contains solid impurities, in endless
variety, generically known as dust.

THE UPPER AIR

Such is the composition of the
air for a few miles above the earth,
but the proportions of its constitu-
ents do not remain the same at
higher levels, since the lighter gases
extend farther upward than the
heavier. Probably there is no water
vapor above about 12 miles ; no oxy-
gen above about 60 miles, and no
nitrogen above about 70 miles. From
a level of about 50 miles upward the
atmosphere, instead of being "air,"

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

412

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

is mostly hydrogen — the lightest
known gas. Moreover, at the 50-
mile level the atmosphere is less
than l/T.l.oiio as dense as at sea-
level; i. e.. it is more than seventy-
five times as attenuated as the best
"vacuum" obtainable with an ordi-
nary mechanical air pump. At 300
miles above the earth it is computed
to be about one-two-millionth as
dense as at sea-level. ( >zone, which
occurs transiently and in small
amounts in the lower atmosphere, is
believed to be permanently present
and abundant at high levels, where
it is formed from oxygen, probably
under the influence of ultra-violet

The past twenty years have wit-
nessed a remarkable development of
upper-air research, or aerology. Up

to a height of about four miles the
atmosphere has been extensively ex-
plored by means of self -registering
meteorological instruments (mete-
orographs) attached to kites — not of
the schoolboy pattern, but box or
cellular kites, the "string" of which
Consists of several miles of steel
wire, wound around the drum of a
power-driven winch. Captive bal-
loons have also been utilized to some
extent. For attaining great alti-
tudes, however, free balloons must
be used. The so-called sounding-

SOUNDING THE UPPER AIR
Left: Launching a pair of Bounding balloons, with self-registering meteorological instru-
ments attached. Dpper right: Balloon meteorograph and the protective cage in which it is
senl aloft. Lower right: Weather Bureau party making upper air observations.

lighl from the sun and of auroral
discharges. The existence in the at-
mosphere of a gas unknown to chem
ists and lighter than hydrogen has
been maintained in some quarters
(especially by Dr. Alfred Wegener).

and it has been named "geocoroni-
um," or "zodiacon." I f present al all,
it is presumably the chief constituent
of the atmosphere in t he upper levels.

balloon, which carries a meteoro-
graph, bursts far above the earth.
and the attached instruments are
carried gently down by a parachute,
or an auxiliary balloon. Sounding-
balloons rise to various heights up
to '-!i> miles. Small balloons sent up
without a meteorograph attached.
merely for the sake of observing the
drift of the air at various levels, are

THE REALM OF THE AIR

413

called pilot-balloons. An altitude of
more than twenty-four miles has
thus been attained.

Since the year 1902 it has been
known that the atmosphere is div-
ided into at least two layers, or
shells, having quite different char-
acteristics. If from some place in
middle latitudes we could travel in
a balloon as far upward as we
pleased, carrying a thermometer
with us, we should find the air rap-
idly growing colder, at a more or
less uniform rate, as we ascended
until we reached an altitude of about
seven miles. Then the fall in tem-
perature would abruptly cease, and
might even be succeeded by a slight-
ly rising temperature for a certain
distance upward. This would indi-
cate that we had passed out of the
troposphere, as the lower stratum of
the atmosphere is now called, and
entered the stratosphere, or isother-
mal layer, in which there are no
very decided or regular changes of
temperature with altitude. The
boundary between the two layers
lies much higher in equatorial re-
gions, and the temperatures at the
summit of the troposphere in such
regions are lower than anywhere

KITE AND BALLOON HOUSE AT AN
AEROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY

else in the atmosphere. A sounding-
balloon over Batavia, Java, has re-
corded 133 degrees below zero, Fahr.,
at an altitude of about ten miles.
Besides differing from the tropo-

sphere in its lack of regular temper-
ature contrasts in a vertical direc-
tion, the stratosphere has an inde-
pendent circulation ; concerning
which, however, not much is yet pos-
itively known.

THE PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere presses down up-
on the earth with a weight which,
at sea-level, amounts, on an average,
to 14.7 pounds to the square inch.
This pressure is, at any point, ex-
erted equally in all directions ; it
acts, for example, on the whole sur-
face of the human body, and this
means that a man of average size
lives under a burden of some seven-
teen tons of air. He is not incom-
moded because the pressure from
without is balanced by that of the
air inside his body. The pressure
of the air decreases upward at the
same rate as its density ; at an alti-
tude of three and one-half miles it
is about half as great as at sea-level.
Thus the atmospheric pressure on
mountains and plateaus is considera-
bly less than in lowlands. At no
place is the pressure invariable, nor
is there a constant relation between
pressure and altitude; but, knowing
approximately the average atmos-
pheric pressure over the earth's sur-
face, and knowing also the area of
the latter, we can compute in round
numbers the total weight of the at-
mosphere—about 5,000,000.000,000,-
000 (5 quadrillion, according to
American notation ; 5,000 billion, ac-
cording to British notation) tons.
This is about 1/1.200.000 of the en-
tire weight of the terrestrial globe.

The pressure of the air is meas-
ured by means of an instrument
called the barometer, and hence is
often referred to as "barometric"
pressure. In this instrument the
weight of the air is balanced against
a column of mercury, and the height
of the latter, generally expressed in
inches or millimeters, is taken as
the measure of the former. Hence,
when we say that the average baro-
metric pressure at sea-level is 29.92
"inches," we are really expressing

414

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

in a roundabout way the weight of
the air at that level.

HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS HEATED

Our life and our weather are both
maintained by a tiny fraction — less
than half a millionth — of the heat
given off by the great luminary
around which the earth revolves in
space. At any given moment half
the surface of the globe basks in
the sunshine while the other half is
in shadow. Besides rotating on its

\ o<vA

THE MARCH OF THE SEASONS
8, tlic sun ; V, north pole of tlio earth ;
/?. winter in X. hemisphere and summer
in s. hemisphere : I), summer in X.
hemisphere, winter in s. hemisphere; .1,
C, equinoxes.

axis once a day. the earth revolves
around the sun once a year, and its
axis, which always remains parallel
to itself, is inclined to the plane of
its orbit. These facts (illustrated in
the accompanying diagram i explain
the alternation of day and night,
the march of the seasons, and the
opposition of the latter in the two
hemispheres. The northern half of
the globe receives more than its
share of solar heat at the season
when the southern half is receiving
less, and vice versa; hence the north-
ern summer coincides with the
Southern winter, and the northern
winter with the southern summer.
The amount of heat received at a
particular place, at a given time, de-
pends chiefly upon the angle at
which the sun's rays reach the
ground, and this is continually
changing. The interposition of
clouds, variations in surface top-
ography, different heal absorbing
properties of water and land, and a

number of other complications ac-
centuate still further the contrasts
in temperature between different
parts of the earth's surface, and
these contrasts give rise to the
iri)ids.

Some of the heat that comes to us
from the sun is absorbed in its pas-
sage through the atmosphere, but
the greater part of it penetrates to
the earth, where it is absorbed, and
then given out to the lower strata
of air. Thus our atmosphere is
heated chiefly from below. The air
that is heated at the earth's surface
expands in all directions, but es-
pecially upward, where it encounters
the least resistance. Moreover, air
that has risen and spread out later-
ally increases the pressure on the
air over which it has flowed, and
this lower air pushes in toward the

over-heated area. The inflowing ( 1-

er air helps to drive the heated
air upward. In other words, the
heated air does not rise merely on
account of its expansion, but because
it is pushed up by the air around it.
Philosophically speaking, our atmos-
phere is kept in motion by solar
energy, just as a steam-engine is
kept in motion by the energy of fuel.

Since the atmosphere is relatively
Very shallow, the distances the ait-
rises and falls under the effects of
temperature are extremely small
compared with the distances it is
carried over the surface of the earth.
It is chiefly the horizontal movement
of the air that we think of as
"wind." but the up-and-down move-
ment is an essential part of the pro-
cess and has several important ef-
fects.
THE GENERAL WIND oi mi; GLOBE

In the equatorial regions the sur-
face air is heated more than else-
where, and rises and overflows, at
high levels, toward the poles: while
the relatively cold air of high lati-
tudes Hows equatorward, near the

earth's surface, to replace it. A

simple circulation between the equa-
tor and the poles could, however,
only occur if the earth did not ro-

THE REALM OF THE AIR

415

tate on its axis. The "deflective
force" of the earth's rotation causes
a particle of air moving in any di-
rection over the earth's surface to
deviate — to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the
southern (a phenomenon that is not
limited to air movements, but ap-
plies in general to bodies moving
freely over the earth). At about
latitude 30 degrees the winds com-
ing from the equator have been so
much deflected that they move al-
most eastwardly. The result is a
great whirl around the pole, occupy-
ing most of the temperate zone in
each hemisphere, with prevailing
winds from the western quadrant at
all levels. The centrifugal force of
this whirl causes the air to bank up
at about latitude SO degrees, pro-
ducing a belt of high pressure in
that region, which is sometimes
known as the horse latitudes.

Between this belt and the equator
there is a regular circulation of air
e (i u a to r w a r d below ( the trade
winds) and poleward above (the
anti-trades) ; and both these systems
of winds are given an oblique direc-
tion by the earth's rotation. Near
the equator, between the two trade-
wind systems, is a region of calms
and variable winds, with abundant
clouds and rain, known as the dol-
drums. Trades and doldrums shift
alternately north and south in the
course of the year, following the
sun, and give to regions which come
under their control, successive dry
and rainy seasons. Within the polar
circles the low temperatures increase
the density of the air, which flows
away from the poles near the earth's
surface; an effect that appears to
be strengthened by the drainage of
air down the glacier slopes of the
two polar continents (Greenland and
Antarctica).

The accompanying table shows
in a general way the arrangement of
the principal wind-belts of the earth.
This represents prevailing condi-
tions, which are, however, subject
to many interruptions. In middle

latitudes, for example, while the pre-
vailing drift of the air is eastwardly,
the actual wind at any place and
time is usually determined by the
positions of cyclones and anticy-
clones (of which we shall say more

NORTH POLE

Arctic calms and outflow-
ing winds, deflected west-
wardly (with poleward
winds overhead).

Westerly to southwesterly
winds of middle latitudes.

Horse latitudes ("calms of
Cancer").

Northeast trade winds
(with southwest anti-
trades overhead I .

Doldrums. or equatorial
calms (with east winds
overhead ) .

Southeast trade winds
(with northwest anti
trades overhead).

Horse latitudes ("calms of
Capricorn" i .

Westerly to northwesterly
winds of middle lati-
tudes (including the
"brave west winds" of
southern oceans).

Antarctic calms and out-
flowing winds, deflected
westwardly (with pole-
ward winds overhead i.

SOUTH POLE

presently). Any of these general
wind-systems may be disturbed by
the seasonal winds known as mon-
soons, which blow outward from a
continent to the ocean in winter and
in the reverse direction in summer.

416

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

[nterruptions on a smaller scale
arise from a day-and-night alterna-
tion of winds to and from bodies
of water (land and sea breezes; land
and lake breezes), and a similar
daily reversal of the wind direction
in mountainous regions (mountain
and valley breezes).

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

Cyclones and anticyclones are
areas of low and high barometric

pressure, respectively, exhibiting cer-
tain typical conditions of wind and
weather. In this country the term
"cyclone" is persistently misapplied

by the hands of a clock) around the
center: not in circles, hut more or
less spirally inward. In the south-
ern hemisphere their direction is re-
versed. The anticyclone lias a cir-
culation opposite to that of the cy-
clone (clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and counterclockwise in
the southern).

There are certain regions of the
globe in which cyclones or anticy-
clones of large extent (known as
"centers of action") tend to persist
through a season or the whole year.
though with fluctuations in size and
activity. Most cyclones and anti-

l)V the newspapers and the public
to a very small intensely violent
stor f the "spout" variety, prop-
erly known as the tornado. The
true Cyclone covers an area thou-
sands of times as greal as that cov-
ered by a tornado, and its winds
may be either stormy or gentle. In
the northern hemisphere the winds
of a cyclone blow "counterclockwise"
(opposite to the direction followed

cyclones, however, travel over the
earth, and those of the temperate
/.one ithe "lows" and "highs" of the
weather map) move in a general

west to-east direction. In the United

states their speed averages about

600 miles a day. i This refers to
the translation of the whirl as a
wh ile. and not to the force of its
winds.) In general, cyclones are at-
tended by clouds and rain or snow;

THE REALM OF THE AIR

417

A FREAK OF THE TORNADO

anticyclones by fair weather. The
temperature commonly rises with the
approach of a cyclone, and falls in
its rear. It is the constant passage
of cyclones and anticyclones over
the country that gives ns our change-
able weather.

On the weather map these areas
are depicted by drawing lines, called
isobars, connecting places having the
same barometric pressure. Wherever
the isobars are crowded the winds
the strong; where they are widely
spaced the winds are gentle.

The tropical cyclone {hurricane
of the West Indies, typhoon of the
China Sea, baguio of the Philippines)
is a relatively violent whirl, which
originates in the stagnant air of the
doldrums, and usually moves in an
oblique and curved path toward
higher latitudes, frequently passing
into the temperate zone, where it
increases in size and decreases in
strength. While middle-latitude cy-
clones occur throughout the year,
tropical cyclones are almost lim-
ited to particular seasons (those of
the West Indies are commonest from
July to October"), and they are also
confined to rather small regions of
the globe. Storms of this type cause
frightful devastation in the Carib-
bean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico,
and occasionally in the southeastern

United States (as at Galveston, Sep-
tember 8, 1900, when 6,000 lives and
$30,000,000 in property were destroy-
ed, chiefly by the great waves gen-
erated by the storm).

TORNADOES AND THUNDERSTORMS

The tornado is a small vortex in
the atmosphere, occurring generally
in the southeastern part of a cyclone,
and rarely experienced, in its full
development, elsewhere than in the
United States, east of the Rocky
Mountains: Its average diameter is
about 1,000 feet, and it travels along
a path varying in length from a few
hundred yards to 200 or 300 miles.
The whirl as a whole moves at a
speed averaging 25 miles an hour,
while the velocity of rotation proba-
bly sometimes amounts to 500 miles
an hour — a wind-force far exceeding
that of any other type of storm.
Within the narrow track of the
disturbance buildings are blown to
bits, trees are uprooted, and human
beings only find safety underground;
but close on either side of the track
little or no damage is done. The
position of the whirl is marked by
a funnel-shaped cloud. Waterspouts,
which occur on the ocean and other
large bodies of water, are similar in
character to tornadoes, though gen-
erally very much less violent.

Thunderstorms occur chiefly in
warm climates and during the warm
season in temperate climates, but
they are by no means unknown in
the polar regions. They are char-
acterized by rapidly rising air cur-
rents, which may be either incidental

ONE OF THE FEW AUTHENTIC PHOTO.
GRAPHS OF A TORNADO

418

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

to the circulation of a cyclone or
duo ti> local overheating of the
ground under strong sunshine. Cy-
clonic thunderstorms sometimes oc-
cur along a line several hundred
miles in length, extending radially
from the center of a cyclone, and
sweeping over the country at a fair-
ly uniform speed. This phenomenon
is called a lint -squall.

The electrical features of a thun-
derstorm are file result and not the
cause of the atmospheric movements.
The process by which the clouds be-
come so strongly electrified as to
give rise to disruptive discharges be-
tween cloud and earth, or cloud and
cloud, is not yet settled beyond con-
troversy, but has been plausibly as-
cribed to the breaking up of rain-
drops in uprushing air currents, ami
the consequent separation of positive
from negative electricity. Lightning
owes its luminosity to the beating of
the air along the path of the elec-
trical discharge. The sudden expan-
sion of the heated ail' produces the
sound-wave we call thunder.

A Hash of lightning sometimes con-
sists of a single virtually instantane-
ous discharge; hut in other cases
several discharges occur in rapid
succession along the same path, giv-
ing to the lightning a flickering ap-
pearance. The duration of a mul-
tiple Hash of this character max
amount to half a second or more.
When such a Hash is photographed
with a camera swinging on a vertical
axis, the successive Hashes appear
side by side on the plate. The rare
form of discharge known as /icarl
or beaded ii<iiitni>i</ presents the ap-
pearance of a string of luminous
beads, still rarer is rocket light-
ning, which shoots up into the air at
the apparent speed of a skyrocket.
Ball lightning, winch takes the form
of a globe of Qre moving slowly
through the air near the earth
(sometimes indoors) has not yet
been satisfactorily explained. //, at
lightning Is the reflection on the
clouds of ordinary lightning too dis-
tant to he audible.

Lightning is far more destructive
iu the rural district- than in cities
and towns. In this country the aver-
age annual property loss from this
cause is about $8,000,000, while
about 1,500 persons are affected an-
nually by lightning stroke, one-third
of this number being killed. The
efficacy of well-constructed light-
ning-rods is not doubted by compe-
tent authorities. Statistics show
that they reduce the tire hazard
from lightning by 80 to 90 per cent
in the case of houses, and by as much
as 99 per cent in the case of hams.

OTHER ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA

St. Elmo's fire (also known under
a score of other names i is a brush
discharge from the points of ter-
restrial objects, and is most common
on mountains. It is also seen on the
masts and spars of vessels. Brush
discharges on a vast scale are said
to occur along the crest of the Chil-
ean Andes, whence they are visible
hundreds of miles out at sea.

The aujrora (called aurora bore-
alis in the northern hemisphere and
aurora australis in the southern) is
now most commonly attributed t<>
the passage of cathode rays through
the atmosphere, under the effects of
some kind of radiation or emission
from the sun. It is especially com-
mon and brilliant at times when sun-
spots are numerous, and is accom-
panied by disturbances in the earth's
magnetism. The aurora has been
carefully studied in high latitudes
by means of simultaneous photo-
graphs from two stations, whereby
its altitude and distance from the
place of observation can he determ-
ined. There appear to he two prin-
cipal forms: vi/... a tranquil, homo-
geneous arc. occurring only at great
altitudes, and shifting beams and
"draperies," occurring mainly at
lower levels. There is some evidence
that a feeble auroral glow commonly
extends o\cr the whole nocturnal
sky. in all latitudes (earthlight) .
Misi ri i xm.oi s WINDS

A wind blowing from a warm re-

Till: REALM OF THE AIR

419

gion toward a cyclonic center is
called, in southern Europe, a sirocco,
and this term is sometimes applied
to similar winds elsewhere. Such
winds are commonly associated with
the heated terms or "hot waves" of
our American summers. Winds
blowing in winter from regions of
high barometric pressure and low
temperature bring us cold waves and
sometimes blizzards (the latter term
implying the presence of driving
snow in addition to high wind and
low temperature). The northers of
Texas come under this head.

A foehn (pronounced like "fern"
but without the r) is a wind which
has been robbed of much of its
moisture through precipitation (rain-
fall) on the windward slope of
mountains, and which is further
dried and heated in descending the
leeward slope. (The heating is due
to the "adiabatic" process, an ex-
planation of which will be found in
physical and meteorological text-
books.) In the western United
States such a wind is called a
chinook. Its effects are most pro-
nounced in winter, when it brings
about a very sudden rise in temper-
ature and causes snow to vanish as
if by magic, whence it has been
nicknamed the "snow-eater." The
bora of the Adriatic and the mistral
of the French Riviera differ from
the fochn in the fact that they
blow from a cold mountainous in-
terior to a warm coastland, and,
therefore, though heated in their
descent, produce the impression of
a cold wind.

Types of wind, the world over,
are not numerous; but as the local
examples of a given type were named
before their generic identity was
recognized the number of wind
names in use amounts to several
hundred. The khamsin, harmattan,
simoon, leveche, lestc. h ranter,
pampero, zonda, buran, purga,
brick fielder, southerl y burster,
williwaw, pontias, tirano, ora, etc.,
are a few of these locally named
winds.

MOISTURE IN THE AIR

For a given temperature of the
air there is a maximum amount of
moisture that can be present in an
invisible form (water vapor). When
the air is charged to the limit it
is said to be -saturated." Absolute
humidity is the weight of water va-
por present, per unit volume, or the
tension of this vapor; relative hu-
midity, the ratio of the amount pres-
ent to the amount necessary for sat-
uration, expressed in percentage.
Cooling of saturated air causes con-
densation, in the form of cloud, fog,
mist. rain, snow, hail, dew or hoar-
frost. The temperature at which
condensation occurs is called the
dew-point, and this varies with the
humidity.

BESSON'S NEPHOMETER FOR MEASUR-
ING CLOUDINESS

The highest clouds consist of ice
needles, and present a feathery ap-
pearance. Fleecy-looking clouds are
composed of little droplets of wa-
ter. According to the International
Cloud Classification there are ten

120

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

principal forms of cloud; viz., three
feathery forms, cirrus, cirro-stratus
and cirro-cumulus, and seven fleecj
or homogeneous forms, atto-cumulus,
alto-stratus, strato-cumulus, nimbus,
cumulus, cumulo-nimbus and stratus.
A few subordinate forms are also
recognized. A common type of cir-
rus is popularly called "mares'
tails." cirro-cumulus is known as
"mackerel sky." cumulus is called
"wool pack," and cumulo-nimbus
"thunder-clouds," or "thunder-
heads." Nimbus is the rain cloud.
A cloud at the earth's surface con-
stitutes fog. Haze is a turbid state
of the atmosphere, sometimes due
merely to the varying optical prop-
erties of air of different tempera-
tures and densities, and sometimes
to the presence of an unusual

phenomena (photometeors) . Falling

raindrops produce, by refract ion and
reflection, the rainbow, opposite the
sun. There is usually a bright
primary i><>ir and a fainter secondary
bote; and one or both may be fring-
ed with supernumerary or spurious
hmis. Lunar rainbows are some-
times seen. They are. as a rule,
nearly colorless, owing to feeble il-
lumination. Water clouds produce
around the sun or moon, by diffrac-
tion, a diffuse reddish ring, called
the corona. From a mountain top
or a balloon a person sometimes sees
his shadow cast on a bank of fog
or cloud. (The shadow seems "uri-
gantic," owing to over-estimation of
its distance. I The head is often sur-
rounded by a glory of colored light,
due to diffraction. The whole phe-

BANDED FORM OF ALTO-CUMULUS

amount of dust, smoke or line wa-
ter-drops. Dust-haze, or dry fog, is
characteristic of dry climates and
dry seasons: it is also a result of
fires in forests, moors ami prairies,
and of volcanic eruptions. Remark-
able Instances of daytime darkness
have sometimes been produced bj
exceptionally dense haze of this

character.

Moisture in the atmosphere is ac
countable for a variety of optical

nomenon is called the specter of
the Brocken.

Halos are due to the refraction or
reflection (or both) of light by ice
crystals in the atmosphere. They
may take the form of rings of deti-
nite angular Size (the commonest

has a radius of 22 degrees) sur-
rounding (he sun or moon: also of
rings <>r arcs in various other posi-
tions, and di^ks of lighl ( l»i rhel in

and paraselenae; in popular Ian-

THE REALM OF THE AIR

421

guage, "sundogs" and "moondogs").
Some forms of halo are distinctly

colored ; others are not. An excel-
lent descriptive account of such
phenomena will be found in the
Monthly Weather Review (published
by the U. S. Weather Bureau) for
July, 1014, pages 436-446.

Not all photometeors are due to
moisture. Mirage, for example, re-
sults from the refraction of light
through adjacent atmospheric strata
having very different densities. One
form of mirage is common over hot
plains and deserts in calm weather,
presenting the illusive appearance
of a sheet of water.

warm season. It consists of ice and
compact snow, generally in concen-
tric layers. Little pellets of snow,
like tiny snowballs, falling chiefly
in early spring and late autumn,
but also in winter, have been inap-
propriately named soft hail (the
German name G ran pel is preferable).
The term sleet is applied by the
Tinted States Weather Bureau to
small particles of clear ice — frozen
raindrops. The British apply this
term to a mixture of rain and snow.
Moisture condensed from the air on
cold surfaces at night (just as
it is condensed on the outside of
an ice-pitcher) is called dcir. If the

■In 111) Sll 100

160180160 140 120 Hif

TEMPERATURE ZONES (ACCORDING TO SUPAN)

PRECIPITATION

Moisture that is condensed out of
the atmosphere and deposited on the
earth is called precipitation. The
commonest liquid form of precipita-
tion is rain, and the commonest
frozen form, snoic (each flake of
which is an aggregation of tiny ice-
crystals). Hail, properly so called,
falls almost exclusively in connec-
tion with thunderstorms, and hence,
in our latitudes, is limited to the

deposit occurs in a frozen form it
is called hoarfrost.

Fog drifting against terrestrial ob-
jects in cold weather sometimes
leaves a rough deposit of ice, called
rime. The smooth icy deposit clue
to rain freezing as it falls — often
very destructive to tree branches,
telegraph wires, and the like — is now
officially termed glaze in this coun-
try, but is popularly misnamed
"sleet." In England it is known as

422

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

glazed frost. The occurrence of
glaze on an extensive scale consti-
tutes an ice storm.

In connection with the subje
precipitation passing mention maj
be made of the widespread delusions
that prevail as to the possibility of
producing or preventing it artificial-
ly. It is held, on the one hand, that
cannonading and other explosions
cause rain. and. on the other, that
the firing <>f cannon, bombs and rock-
ets drives away hail. Both beliefs
are unfounded. The energy involved
in such explosions is insignificant in
comparison with the atmospheric
forces that determine the occurrence
(.1" precipitation.

CLIMATE

The meteorological conditions thai

are characteristic of a particular re-
gion constitute its climate. With re-
spect t<> temperature, climates are
distinguished not only as hot. cold
and temperate, bul also as equable
and the reverse. Marine climates —
i. e., those of regions exposed t<>
winds from the ocean — have small
daily and yearly ranges of tempera-
ture, while continental climate
those withdrawn from oceanic in-
fluences arc subject to greal ex-
tremes of temperature. The highest
temperatures are not limited to the
equatorial regions, nor the lowest
to the polar regions. Probably no
other part of the world experiences
quite such hot weather as prevails
in the deserts of southern California
in summer. A shade temperature
of 134 deg. I'ahr. has been regis-
tered at Greenland Ranch, in Death
Valley. Oceanic islands in the tor-
rid /.one never have temperatures as
high as those that prevail widely
over tlie interior of the United

States during "hot waves." (in the

other hand, the cold weather experi-
enced in winter in our northwestern
and north central States far sur-
passes anything known in much
more northerly seaboard regions of
western Europe. The lowest winter

temperatures in the world are those
that occur in north-central Siberia,
where, at Verkhoyansk, an official
temperature of 90 degrees below
zero. Fahr., has been recorded.

Rainfall, as an element of climate,
includes all forms of aqueous pre-
cipitation i the frozen forms being
expressed in their "water equiva-
lent"). Measurements of rainfall re-
fer to the depth of water that would
lie upon the ground if none of it
ran off, soaked in or evaporated.
Annual rainfalls may he classified,
especially with respect to their ag-
ricultural significance, as excessive
when over "•""» inches; copious, 50-75
inches; moderate, 25-50 inches: light,
10-25 inches: desert, under lo inches.
The heaviest rainfall occurs within
or near the tropics (though greal
deserts also occur in thi- region).
Tin- rainiest place in the world for
which we have meteorological rec-
ords is Cherrapunji, a hill station in
India, with an animal rainfall of
about 426 inches. The heaviest mean
annual rainfall in the United States
(not including Alaska ) is about 133
inches in Tillamook County. Oregon.
The heaviest snowfall in the United
States probably occurs in the high
Sierra Nevada, near the border be-
tween Nevada ami California. A
total depth of <;."> feet has been
known to fall here in the course of
a winter.

That "the climate has changed"
within a generation or so is a stub-
born popular delusion, which pre-
vails more or less all over the world.
and has probably prevailed in every

age. The belief ill tile "old fashioned
winter" is an example of this de-
lusion. More than a century ago
American philosophers wrote disser-
tations on tlie changes <<f climate
that they supposed had occurred
since early colonial times. Such
ideas arise chiefly from the fact that
exceptional weather impresses itself
more lastingly upon one's memory
than normal weal'

CHAPTER VI.

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

By C. F. TALMAN

TEXXYSOX, who, of all the
brethren of his craft, did most
to poetize the facts of astron-
omy, speaks of the stars as "cold
fires, yet with power to burn and
brand his nothingness into man.*'
Nonentity has its advantages. A
sovereign remedy for the trivial
worries of human life is the con-
templation of the starlit sky and the
realization of the infinitesimal im-
portance of the earth and all things
earthly in comparison with a bound-
less universe. The nightly spectacle
of the stars is, however, commonly
ignored. Many people look at it all
their lives without really seeing it.
The more conspicuous constellations
ought to be as familiar to every
human being with two eyes in his
head as the town hall or his next-
door neighbor's stable. They are far
from being so. Most people you
meet will admit frankly that the
only constellation they know by
sight is the Big Dipper — which, as
it happens, is not a constellation
at all.

A knowledge of the heavens is
more general in primitive and pio-
neer communities than in centers of
civilization and culture. The pas-
toral tribes of Chaldea and Arabia,
thirty centuries ago, were better ac-
quainted with the stars than are
modern Xew Yorkers and Londoners.
During the South African war the
English soldiers were astonished at
the ease with which the colonial
troops marched at night, using the

stars to guide them in lieu of a
compass.

The relative "nothingness" of the
earth and its inhabitants is chiefly
a modern idea, though it was not
entirely unfamiliar to the specula-
tive philosophers of antiquity.
Thanks to the brilliant labors of
many astronomers — of whom Coper-
nicus should be mentioned first of
all — we now know that the world
on which we live is a planet or
satellite, revolving humbly around
an enormously greater body, which
we call the sun ; and we know that
the sun, in its turn, is a rather un-
important member of a vast system
of suns, or stars. The sun looks
bigger than the other stars only be-
cause it is nearer to us.

How many stars are there? Sur-
vey the heavens on a cloudless aud
moonless night, and you will prob-
ably get the impression that the
number visible to the naked eye is
almost infinite. This impression is,
however, quite erroneous. The
greatest number of stars which the
unaided eye can distinguish at any
one place on the earth and at any
one time is hardly more than two
thousand. With an opera-glass
many thousands more can be seen,
and this little instrument will be
found an invaluable adjunct in a
study of the heavens. A portable
telescope with an object-glass only
two inches in diameter discloses, in
the entire sky. upwards of 700,000
stars. Great telescopes, such as those

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

424

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

THE ATWOOD SPHERE FOR STUDYING THE STARS

ns installed at the Academy of Sciences, Chicago. The stars, down to the fifth magni-
tude, are represented by perforations, of different sizes, in the sheet iron sphere,
through which lighl shines from the exterior. The sphere can be revolved by au electric
motor, making the constellations rise and set.

of the Lick, Yerkes and Mount Wil-
son Observatories, show at least
two hundred million. There arc un-
doubtedly many million more be-
yond the range of all telescopes on
account of their prodigious dis-
tances, and there are probably many
comparatively near stars that are
Invisible because they give little or
no light Indeed these dark stars
are suspected to be much more
numerous than the brighi ones. One
estimate makes them 4,000 times as
numerous: but this is little better
than a guess.

The brightness of the stars, as
viewed from the earth, is expressed
on a scale of "magnitudes," so re-
lated to one another that an average
star of one magnitude is two and
one half times as bright as one of the
next lower magnitude. Of the first,
or brightest, magnitude there are
only twenty stars; the brightest of
all bein»; Sirius. the Dog Star. There
are sixty-five stars of the second

magnitude, and two hundred of the
third. The faintest stars visible to
the naked eye on a clear, moonless
night are of the sixth magnitude.

That the astronomer, without
leaving our tiny earth, can measure
the distances of the heavenly bodies
(or at least of many of them I is
neither more nor less wonderful
than that the surveyor, without
crossing a river, can measure the
distance of a tree on the opposite
bank; though the astronomer's task
requires more delicate instruments
and more painstaking observations.
In both cases quite a simple trigono-
metrical operation is Involved. The
surveyor gets the bearing of the
tree from each end of a measured
base-line: and having thus two
angles and one side of a triangle,
the rest is easy. In measuring the
distance of the moon from the earth,
the astronomer uses for a base-line
the known distance between two
widely separated observatories — say

9-inch Transit Circle

26-inch Equatorial, U. S Naval Observatory

Washington, D C.

40-mcb Equatorial. Yerkes Observatory
Xerkes Observatory. Williams. Bay, Wis,

4L'G

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

EXTERIOR OF THE SPHERE

;it Greenwich and Cape Town- — an<?
jrcts the bearing of the moon, or
rather its apparent position as pro-
jected on the Car more distant back-
ground of stars, from each observa-
tory. The difference in the direction
of the moon as soon from two
places on earth (generally reduced
to the difference in its direction
from the center and surface of the
earth respectively) is known as the
moon's ••parallax." and 'jives ns the

in i's distance aboul 239,000 miles.

The sun's parallax is found in a
somewhal different manner, bui the
process also involves the use of the
distance between two places on
earth as a base-line. The distance
of the sun from the earth is aboul

93,000, miles. An express train

would take more than 250 years to
perform a journey of tins length,
and a cannon hall ahout nine years.
Light, traveling at a speed of L86.000
miles a second, requires a little more
than eight minutes to reach us from
the sun.

Yet. this distance, enormous as it
is. is Insignificant compared with

the distances of even the nearest
stars. In measuring the parallax of
a star terrestrial distances are far
too small to serve as the hase line,
and accordingly the star is sighted
from two opposite points in the
earth's circuit ahout the sun. giving
a base-line one hundred and eighty-
six million miles in length. Even so.
the base-line is barely long enough
to give a measurable parallax for a
comparatively small number of
stars, and the observations involved
are among the most refined known
to astronomy. Photographic meth-
ods are now employed in measuring
stellar parallaxes.

The distances of the stars are so
great that to state them in miles
would he as awkward as stating the
distance from New York to Cal-
cutta in inches. Hence a larger unit
is commonly employed, known as the
"light-year." This is the distance
which light travels in a year, and
is a little less than six trillion miles
(according to the American and
French meaning of the term "tril-
lion." corresponding to the British
"billion"). Another unit, more re-
cently introduced, is the "parsec,"
defined as the distance at which a
star's parallax is one second of arc.
or 206,265 times the distance id' the

MECHANISM OF THE SPHERE

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

427

earth from the sun. At a distance
of one hundred parsecs our sun
would be a star of the tenth magni-
tude. Our nearest neighbor in stel-
lar space is a star of the southern
heavens called Alpha Centauri (the
brightest star in the constellation
of the Centaur), its distance being
4.3 light-years.

Concerning the actual dimensions
of the stars we have little positive
knowledge, but it is certain that
some are very much larger than
others, and that our sun is far from
being one of the giants of the uni-
verse. To Canopus, a magnificent
star of the southern skies, has re-
cently been ascribed by some as-
tronomers the honor of being the
biggest of the stars, one estimate
giving him a volume about two and
one-half million times as great as
that of the sun. While such figures
are highly speculative, they are not
improbable.

What are the stars made of? Be-
fore the invention of the spectro-
scope there appeared to be little
prospect that mankind would ever
find the answer to this question. The
spectroscope is an instrument which
analyzes a beam of light, and fur-
nishes certain information concern-
ing the source from which it comes.
It spreads out the light into a rain-
bow-colored strip, called the spec-
trum. If the source is a luminous
gas, the light is broken up into a
number of bright lines or bands. If
the light, coming from a luminous
solid, liquid, or dense gas, has passed
through a cooler and less luminous
gas, the spectrum as a whole is
bright, but is crossed by dark lines
or bands. In either case the posi-
tions of these lines and bands reveal
the chemical composition of the
gaseous material.

The interpretation of the lines
and bands depends upon laboratory
experiments, and the spectroscope is
much used by chemists in making
analyses; but it is also used, in
Conjunction with the telescope, by
astronomers, to determine the com-

ix >sition, not of solid or quasi-solid
bodies in the heavens, but of the
gaseous envelopes or atmospheres by
which these bodies are surrounded.
Both our sun and the other visible
stars are so hot that some or all of
the substances of which they con-
sist (apart from those which are
gaseous at low temperatures) are
vaporized, and form such enveloping
atmospheres.

The solar spectrum shows that
the sun's atmosphere, and hence the
sun itself, contains an abundance of
calcium, iron, hydrogen, sodium,
nickel, and other substances found
on earth. About forty terrestrial
elements are positively known to ex-
ist in the sun, and the presence of
others is indicated on less certain
evidence.

With the aid of photography the
spectra of more than 200,000 stars
have been examined. Some show
the presence of a few, others of
many elements known on earth. The
differences between different stellar
spectra are, apparently, not due to
any radical differences in the com-
position of the stars themselves, but
rather to the fact that their physi-
cal conditions differ, especially as
to temperature, and hence they have
different kinds of atmospheres. In
short, the stars, the sun and the
earth are probably all made of the
same sort of matter.

The stars are frequently described
as "fixed," to distinguish them from
the planets of our solar system,
which, as we shall presently see,
change their apparent positions in
the sky more or less rapidly with
respect to the stars and to one an-
other. Actually, however, all the
stars are in rapid motion through
space. Our sun. for example, travels
at a speed of about twelve miles a
second, Many stars move much
faster. At the Mount Wilson Ob-
servatory one has recently been
found with a velocity of about 358
miles a second.

The movements of stars make
themselves evident in two ways In

428

ni'K COUNTRI AND ITS RESOURCES

the course of years certain stars
have been observed to change their
positions a little with respect to
other stars. This change is known
as "proper motion." and is always
very gradual. The greatest proper
motion known is that of a star dis-
covered by Barnard, in 1916, which
in about 180 years changes its place
in the sky by an amount equal to
the apparent diameter of the moon.
Proper motion of a star whose dis-
tance from us is known by observa-
tions of parallax shows how fast the
star is moving across the line of our
vision, i. e.. the line extending from
our eyes to the star, but does not
tell us whether, or how fast, the
star is approaching or receding from
us. This so-called radial motion, or
motion in the line of sight, is de-
termined by means of the spectro-
SCOpe. The result of such motion is
a slight displacement of the spectral
lines from their normal positions.
Displacement in one direction shows
that the star is approaching, and in
the other that it is receding; while
the amount of displacement indicates
the speed of approach or recession.
In genera] the stars are so far
apart that they show no definite
effects of one another's attraction,
but there are a number of pairs of
Stars which are obviously revolving
around common centers of gravity.
These are called "binaries." Among
those thus far discovered the periods
of revolution range all the way

fr a few hours to 1,500 years.

Some of these pairs are so close
that they appear as a single star

e\ch in the most powerful telescopes,
hut their double character is re-
vealed by the spectroscope, and
hence they are known as "spectro-
scopic binaries." If the plane in
which the stars revolve lies more or
less "edge on" to the earth, each

star will, of course, successively
move toward and from us in the
course of its revolution. This
causes a shifting of the spectral

lines similar to that mentioned in
the last paragraph, if both stars

are bright enough to show spectra,
the corresponding lines of these
spectra will alternately coincide and
separate. If only one star shows a
spectrum, its lines will shift alter-
nately to right and left. When, in
such cases, the parallax of the stars
is known, we can compute from well-
known laws of gravitational motion
the actual dimensions of the orbits
in which they revolve and the
masses of the stars, notwithstanding
the fact that the best telescopes do
not show these bodies separately,
and may not show one of them at
all — a remarkable example of what
has been called "the astronomy of
the invisible."

Many stars are observed to vary
in brightness, either regularly or
otherwise. When there is a regular
period of variation, the spectroscope
generally shows the star to be
double, and the variations of bright-
ness are apparently determined by
the different aspects presented bj
the two components during the peri-
od of revolution. There is also good
reason to believe that some variable
stars are not spherical, but are
elongated into an elliptical, pear-
shaped, or hour-glass-shaped form,
and the rotation of Mich a star mighl
present to us markedly varying
amounts of surface. In an interest-
ing class of variable stars known as
"eclipsing variables" — of which Al-
gol, the "demon star." is the most
famous example — the principal star
of a pair is periodically "eclipsed"
by the passage in front of it of a
less luminous (not necessarily dark)
satellite, which is itself invisible in
our telescopes. There are still other
variables of which the fluctuation in
brightness is apparently the result
of periodic outbreaks of activity in
the star itself, due to causes of
which we have no knowledge.

It has occasionally happened that
a temporary star has made its ap-
pearance in the firmament, and some
of these "nova'." as they are called.
have been of great brilliancy. The
most famous of them was one which

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

429

appeared in the year 1572, and which
is commonly associated with the
name of Tycho Brahe, the Danish
nobleman-astronomer, because he
wrote a description of it, though
he did not discover it. For some
days it was brighter than any other
star in the sky and visible in broad
daylight. It then gradually faded,
and at the end of sixteen months
had become invisible. Another re-
markable nova appeared in the con-
stellation of Perseus in 1901. Two
days before its discovery a photo-
graph of that portion of the heavens,
showing stars as faint as the
eleventh magnitude, did not include
it. When first observed, it was of
the third magnitude, and it bright-
ened in two days to the first, after
which it rapidly faded. It is still

hypothesis, supported by spectro-
scopic evidence, nova? are due to
the passage of a normally faint or
dark star through a gaseous region
in space ; the star being made lu-
minous by friction, just as a meteor-
ite becomes luminous in passing
through the earth's atmosphere.

Such gaseous regions are known
to exist, and many of them are self-
luminous, constituting some of the
bright cloud-like patches in the
heavens known as "nebulae," two or
three of which are faintly visible to
the naked eye, while probably half
a million or more are within the
range of the biggest telescopes, or
the camera. Not all nebula? are gas-
eous. Many are merely distant
clusters of stars, presenting in ordi-
nary telescopes the same appearance

Photographed by Ritchey, Yerkes Observatory
The Great Nebula in Andromeda

Spiral Nebula

visible in the telescope as a star of
the twelfth magnitude.

Various explanations of these sud-
den apparitions have been suggested.
The collision of two dark or faint
stars in space would doubtless give
rise to a great burst of luminosity,
or a vast eruption of glowing mat-
ter might occur from a star that
was previously quiescent (but this
is an explanation that needs to be
explained). According to a recent

as gaseous nebulae. Whether a
nebula is gaseous or not can some-
times, but not always, be determined
by the spectroscope.

Nebulae assume various character-
istic forms ; some are ring-shaped,
some elliptical ; some ( the "plan-
etary" nebulae) disk-shaped, and al-
most uniformly bright throughout.
Others are quite irregular in shape;
of this type is the Great Nebula in
Orion, the most magnificent object

130

<U'K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

of its kind in the sky. This nebula,
which can be vaguely seen with the
linked eye, surrounds one of the
stars in Orion's sword:

••;i single misty star
Which is the second in a line of

stars
That seem a sword beneath a belt

of three"
(a description, by the way, that is
probably lost on ninety-nine out of

every bundred readers of Tennyson's
••Merlin and Vivien" — especially in
America, where astronomy has been
almost completely banished from
schools and academies).

Fine details of the nebula? which
the eye, aided by the best of tele-
scopes, cannot detect are revealed by
long-exposure photographs. It thus
appears that many, and perhaps
most, of them are made up of spir-
ally twisted wisps of light, studded
with points of condensation. The
camera has also disclosed the pres-
ence of faint nebulous matter
spreading over greal areas of the
sky; in some cases enveloping a
whole constellation. Just as there
are dark stars, so there appear to be
many dark nebula1. It is probable
that such objects, silhouetted against
a luminous background of dense
Star fields, account for some of the
striking black patches in the sky.

once SUPPOSed to he merely starless

regions of space.

The galaxy, or Milky Way. a
great luminous hand encircling the
sky, presents a nebulous appearance
to i he naked eye, but even a small
telescope shows it to be made up of
innumerable stars, from the eighth
magnitude down. Including many
dense clusters. It contains, however,
very few Lraseous nebula*. The num-
ber of stars in a given area of sky
decreases more or less regularly as
we move away from the galaxy.
Thus it seems likely that the stollar
universe, or. at least, the system of
Stars to which our sun belongs, has
a more or less disk like shape (com-
parable to that of a thin watch),
with the sun aTld the solar system

somewhere near the middle of it.
We should see the densest accumula-
tion of stars in looking toward the
edge of the disk, and this would
correspond with the galaxy.

We have now. in a truly cosmo-
politan spirit, taken a general sur-
vey of the universe before paying
particular attention to the little nook
of it in which we live. It is time
to say a few words about the solar
system.

At the center of this system is
the sun: an intensely hot rotating
globe, about 866,000 miles in diam-
eter, probably of very dense gaseous
matter, completely enclosed and hid-
den from our view by a shell of
clouds, which we call the '"photo-
sphere." While our earth has a cool
atmosphere, composed of nitrogen,
oxygen and other substances that
are gaseous at ordinary tempera-
tures, and in which water-vapor is
condensed, by cooling, into the drop-
lets and ice-crystals of which ter-
restrial clouds consist, the sun. on
account of its vastly higher tempera-
ture, maintains an atmosphere in
which even the most refractory ele-
ments are vaporized, and its clouds,
also liquefied and solidified by cool-
ing, do not consist of water, but of
various metals, with carbon and
other elements.

The solar atmosphere extends far
above the photosphere. Immediately
overlying the latter is a gaseous lay-
er, consisting partly and perhaps
chiefly of hydrogen, called the
••chromosphere." In structure it may
be compared to a sheet of Same,
for. though we can see the photo-
sphere through it. the chromosphere
itself shines with a brilliant scarlet
light, which is visible along the
border or "limb" of the sun at the
time of a solar eclipse. At such
times long outward projections from
the chromosphere are often seen, and
these are called •'prominences." With
the aid of the spectroscope it is pos-
sible to see both the chromosphere
and the prominences without an
eclipse, and even to photograph

432

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

them. Some prominences are Quies-
cent, banging for days over the same
spot, while others may be seen to
shool upward, often at a speed of
from 100 to 200 miles a second, and
to altitudes which, in extreme cases,
amount to from -juo.ihmi to more than
300,o<to miles. Lastly, the sun has
an extremely tenuous outer atmos-
phere, of vast extent, which is seen
as a broad wispy glow during an
eclipse, and is known as the "co-
rona."

The surface of the photosphere
usually exhibits a few or many dark
patches, of various shapes, known
as "sunspots." These vary in size
from tiny points, just visible in the
telescope, to great blotches that can
be seen, through smoked glass, with

holes in the photosphere, and -
formerly believed to be, at least,
deep depressions in its surface; but

they are now regarded as the tops
of vortices, or cyclones, in the solar
atmosphere. This atmosphere is un-
doubtedly the seat of an active cir-
culation, analogous to the wind-
system of the earth, and one conse-
quence of the circulation is that the
cloud layer, or photosphere, rotates
much more rapidly near the solar
equator than elsewhere : viz.. once in
about twenty-five days, as compared
with thirty days and upwards in
high solar latitudes.

The temperature at the surface of
the sun far exceeds the highest that
can be attained with the electric
furnace, the most powerful heating

SATURN, THE LIGHTEST OF THE PLANETS IN PROPORTION TO ITS SIZE,

WOULD FLOAT IN WATER (IF THERE WERE AN OCEAN

BIG ENOUGH TO HOLD IT!)

the naked eye, and are actually
Kin. uiiii miles or more in diameter.
The spuis are transient phenomena,
lasting from a few days to a few
months, and changing more or less
rapidly in shape. As the sun ro-
tates, carrying the spots with it. the
latter appear at one limb of the
solar disk and travel across to the
opposite limb. The spots look like

device known to man. Estimates
range up to 16,000 or 18,000 deg.
l'ahr. The sun's output of heat has
been the object of elaborate observa-
tions with instruments, such as the
bolometer and the pyrheliometer, de-
signed for measuring the minute
fraction of this heat that we receive
on earth, and it is found to be sub-
ject to slight fluctuations; yet in

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

433

^W^tfT^swWss*

Neptune
(1 satellite)

Uranus

(4 satellites)

Saturn

(10 satellites)

Jupiter

(9 satellites)

Asteroids

Mars

(2 satellites)

Earth

(1 satellite)

Venus

Mercury

ftftjaHaJuaiiEsasfc-

RELATIVE SIZES OF PLANETS
(Sun's Diameter on Same Scale Equals

Length of Cut)
Corrected to date from Todd's "New As-
tronomy." Copyright 1897 and 19(1(5. Used
by permission of American Book Company,
publishers.

the long run it remains substantially
uniform, and probably has so re-
mained since prehistoric times. How
is this supply of heat maintained?
The impact of meteors falling with
enormous speed into the sun would
account for part of it, but the much
slower fall of the outer portions of
the sun itself — in other words, a
gradual shrinking of the whole body
— seems to be the chief explanation.
It has been computed that a con-
traction of only six miles per cen-
tury would keep the sun at its pres-
ent temperature. Several centuries
must elapse, however, before this
slow shrinking, if it exists, can be
verified with the telescope.

The student who has familiarized
himself with the constellations and
their principal stars with the aid of
star maps will notice in the noc-
turnal sky a few star-like objects,
some of them very brilliant, which
are not shown on the maps, and
which move from one constellation
to another. Their paths all lie with-
in a comparatively narrow zone of
the heavens, called the "zodiac."
These are the planets. Compared
with the stars and the sun they are
actually of very small size, though
some of them outshine any of the
stars because of their proximity to
us. The nearest of all the planets
does not shine in our skies ; it lies
at our feet. We call it the earth.
There are eight known planets ; not
counting their attendant moons, or
satellites, nor the small bodies
known as asteroids, or planetoids.
All the planets, with their moons,
and also the asteroids, revolve
around the sun in orbits that, in
most cases, are nearly circular.
They all shine with light reflected
from the sun.

The names of the planets, the
order in which their orbits lie from
the sun, and their relative sizes are
shown by the accompanying dia-
gram, the total length of which in-
dicates the diameter of the sun, on
the same scale. The satellites, not all
of which are shown, are not drawn

434

<UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

to scale (those (if Mars would be in-
visible if their relative size were not
here much exaggerated). Mercury
is the nearest planet to the sun.
Though there has been much specu-
lation about an "intraniereurial

name Vulcan — no such body is now
believed to exist. On the other
hand, it is extremely probable that
one or two unknown planets lie be-
yond the orbit of Neptune.

Besides revolving around the sun,

planet" — it has even been given the each planet rotates on its axis. The

TELESCOPIC VIEW OF THE MOON A DAY AFTER FIRST QUARTER

The linage is Inverted as compared with a naked eye view. The rough edge in the right

is the "terminator"— the line along which tin1 sun is just risiuu-. Here the

craters cast long shadows and are most favorably observed

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

435

rotation of the earth causes the,
to earth-dwellers, apparent daily
revolution of the sun, moon and
stars, just as the motion of a train
in which you are riding causes the
apparent motion, in the opposite di-
rection, of objects outside the win-
dows of your carriage.

The moons or satellites have even
more complex motions than the plan-
ets. They are carried by the latter
around the sun ; they rotate on their
axes; and they revolve around the
planets to which they severally be-
long. Mercury and Venus have no
moons; the earth has only one; Mars
has two, both very small and very
close to the planet. At this writing
(1916) Jupiter is known to have
nine, Saturn ten, Uranus four, and
Neptune one ; but it is not likely that
all the satellites of these four planets
have been discovered.

Our own moon — the moon— is
much the nearest of all celestial
bodies to the earth. Her diameter
is a little more than one-fourth as
great as the earth's, and she re-
volves around our planet in about
twenty-seven and one-third days.
The lunar "month," determined by
the relative positions of the moon
and sun in our skies, is twenty-nine
and one-half days. Since the moon
always keeps the same face toward
the earth, she turns once on her
axis while she is revolving once
an mnd the earth.

The moon is usually described by
modern astronomers as a "dead
planet." She is supposed to have
had an atmosphere ages ago, but
to have lost it, and to be devoid of
moisture and incapable of support-
ing life. All that is certain, how-
ever, is that if a lunar atmosphere
exists it is excessively rare, and
that most, if not all, forms of life
known to us would perish if trans-
planted to our satellite. Some re-
cent observers, notably Professor
Pickering, believe they have de-
tected patches of vegetation and ice,
frost or mist on the lunar surface.
The moon is the most interesting

of all objects in the telescope, be-
cause of the innumerable mountains
— chiefly extinct volcanic craters—
which cover her surface. Many of
the craters are far larger than any
similar formations known on earth.
Several hundred of the craters have
been named in honor of early as-
tronomers and philosophers. The
so-called "seas" on the moon are
desert plains — perhaps the dry beds
of former oceans.

The gravitational pull of the moon,
combined with that of the sun, pro-
duces the tides in our oceans. As
the earth rotates, a wave of water
travels around the globe, following
the direction of the moon's apparent
motion, while another wave, on the
opposite side of the globe, is due
to the fact that the earth itself is
pulled, by the moon's attraction,
away from the overlying ocean. Thus
at any one place in the ocean there
are two tides a day.

In her revolutions around the
earth the moon frequently passes
between us and the sun, in such a
position as to obscure the whole or
a part of the sun's disk as seen from
portions of our planet, producing a
solar eclipse. As the direction of
the moon at any time with respect
to the sun is not the same from all
parts of our globe, an eclipse that
is "total" in one region of the earth
will be "partial" or nil in other
regions. At any one place "totality"
is very brief, lasting only three or
four minutes in an average eclipse.
There is a very narrow zone along
which totality occurs progressively,
as the moon advances in her orbit
and the earth rotates (these two
motions are in the same direction,
otherwise the duration of the eclipse
would be even less) ; on either side
is a much broader zone, in which
a partial eclipse is seen ; while over
the rest of the earth there is no
eclipse.

A lunar eclipse occurs when the
moon, in the course of her revolution,
passes through the shadow cast by
the earth, and is thus temporarily

136

ol'K COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

deprived of sunlight. If the moon
is completely immersed in the
shadow the eclipse is total; if only
partly immersed, it is partial. A
lunar eclipse, unlike a solar eclipse,
is always visible to the entire hemi-
sphere of the earth turned moon-
ward at the time.

.Mercury and Venus are called
"inferior" planets, because their
orbits lie within that of the earth.
As viewed from the earth they seem
to oscillate from one side of the
sun to the other: now appearing in
the western sky after sunset, and
now in the eastern sky before sun-
rise. Mercury's apparent position in
the sky is never very far from that
of the sun. and hence this planet is
never above the horizon long enough
after sunset or before sunrise to be
conspicuous. Venus moves consider-
ably farther from the sun. and at
such times becomes a magnificent
object, much brighter than any other
planet or tixcd star. It is probable,
though not certain, that Mercury and
Venus always keep the same faces
tinned toward the sun. just as the
moon does toward the earth. If so,
scorching heat must prevail perpetu-
ally in one hemisphere of each
planet, while intense cold reigns in
the oilier. Mercury appears to have
Little or no atmosphere; but Venus
Rives unmistakable evidence of pos-
sessing one, and also clouds. As to
permanent surface markings on
these planets astronomers are not in
agreement.

The "superior" planets, i. e., the
planets whose orbits are outside that
of the earth, sometimes lie in the
same direction from the earth as the
sun, when they are said to be in
"conjunction" with that luminary,
ami are invisible; sometimes in the
opposite direction, when they are
said to be in "opposition," and shine
through the night, rising about sun-
sol and setting about sunrise. Posi-
tions midway between conjunction
and opposition are known as "quad-
rature."

Mars, when at opposition, and

therefore nearest the earth, is an
object of great interest on account
of the many details of its surface
that can then be seen through pow-
erful telescopes, under favorable at-
mospheric conditions. These mark-
ings show that the planet rotates
on its axis once in about twenty-four
and one-half hours ; hence its "day"
is a little longer than the earth's.
Near the planet's poles are two white
patches, the "polar caps," which be-
have as if made of snow or ice.
varying in size with the Martian
seasons. The rest of the surface is
mottled with grayish green and yel-
lowish areas, and shows a number
of dark lines and spots that have
been variously reported and inter-
preted by different observers. Among
these are the so-called "canals," de-
scribed as radiating and intersecting
lines of such geometrical regularity
as to suggest an artificial origin.
Many double or twin canals have
also been reported. One hypothesis
in regard to these lines is that they
are irrigation channels, fringed with
vegetation. This implies, of course,
the present or former existence of
intelligent beings on Mars. Some
astronomers, however, consider the
canals a mere optical illusion, due
to the tendency of the eye to join
up by lines any aggregation of small
or faint markings.

Beyond the orbit of Mars lie the
asteroids, or minor 'planets, of which
several hundred are known, while
many new ones are discovered ev-
ery year. The largest of these bod
ies is barely 500 miles in diameter,
and most of them are very much
smaller.

Next in order conies the giant
planet Jupiter, one-tenth as great in
diameter as the sun. around which
it revolves in a period of nearly
twelve years. Jupiter turns on its
axis once in about ten hours; faster
than any other planet. As in the
case of the sun. we see little if any
of its real surface, but only a dense
layer of clouds in which it is en-
veloped. These clouds assume belt-

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

437

like forms, visible even in a small
telescope. The planet itself is be-
lieved to be in a fluid or semi-fluid
condition, and intensely hot, though
hardly hot enough to be luminous.
Jupiter is the second brightest of
the planets, and much brighter than
any fixed star.

Saturn, which lies next beyond
Jupiter, is unique among the planets
in the possession of a system of flat
and very thin rings, like circular
disks of paper perforated in the
middle. According to the position
of the planet with respect to the
earth and the sun the rings present
very different appearances, and at
times disappear altogether, at least
in ordinary telescopes ; viz., when
they are "edge on" to us, or "edge
on" to the sun, or, again, when
they turn toward us the side on
which the sun is not shining. At
other times they are broadly ellip-
tical and conspicuous in a small
telescope. These strange appen-
dages were long a puzzle to the as-
tronomers, but are now known to be
made up of innumerable little bodies,
comparable in size to meteors, re-
volving around the planet. Saturn
exhibits cloud-belts, like those of
Jupiter, though less distinct, and its
structure is probably similar to
Jupiter's.

Uranus is barely visible to the
naked eye. It wTas the first planet
to be found with the telescope, hav-
ing been discovered in 17S1 by Sir
William Herschel, who at first sup-
posed it to be a comet. All the
planets with which men were then
acquainted had been known from an-
tiquity, and the discovery of a new
one created a great stir. Much more
remarkable, however, from a scien-
tific point of view was the discovery
of Neptune, in 1S46. The position
of this planet was computed before
the planet itself was seen, solely on
the basis of irregularities in the
movements of Uranus, wmich were
evidently due to the disturbing in-
fluence of another and undiscovered
member of the solar system. The

computations were performed inde-
pendently by Leverrier in France
and Adams in England, and the
planet was found by the astronom-
ers at the Berlin Observatory at
the place where Leverrier told them
to look for it. Neptune is invis-
ible to the naked eye. Its distance
from the sun is 2,791,000,000 miles,
and its "year," i. e., its period
of revolution around the sun, is
165 of our years. It has there-
fore not made half a circuit since
its discovery, in the days of our
grandfathers.

Comets, once objects of awe and
terror, are commonplace to the
modern astronomer, who, with his
telescope, finds half a dozen new
ones every year. About one-fifth of
these become, at some time in their
history, bright enough to be seen
with the naked eye. While many
comets, especially the fainter ones,
have no visible "tails," a few have
displayed more than one of these
appendages. The tail is always di-
rected away from the sun, and often
attains a stupendous size ; some have
been more than 100,000,000 miles in
length. Most astonishing is the fact
that, in spite of their size, comets
are always excessively light ; mere
feathers compared with any of the
planets. This is proved by the fact
that they do not produce the slight-
est disturbance in the movements of
planets or satellites near which they
pass, though their own movements
are greatly modified by these ap-
proaches. Comets are self-luminous,
but their brightness is doubtless
increased by reflected sunlight. Many
of these bodies are permanent mem-
bers of our system, performing their
revolutions around the sun at in-
tervals of a few or many years.
Others, so far as we know, make
this circuit only once, and then
dash away for all time into outer
space.

Meteors, or shooting stars, appear
to be intimately related to comets,
and may be produced, at least in
part, by the disintegration of the

138

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

latter. These bodies only become

risible to us when they pass through
our atmosphere and are made 'uin-
inous by friction. Millions of them
enter the atmosphere every day.
Most of these are probably vaporized
and dissipated, some pass on into
space, and some reach the earth as
meteorites. Vast swarms of mete-

ors appear to be constantly traveling
in regular orbits around the sun.

The "zodiacal light," a faint glow
extending along the zodiac in both
directions from the sun, and best
seen in our latitudes in the evenings
of February and March, is probably
due to sunlight reflected from a
great ring of meteors.

CRATERS ON THE MOON
Large-scale photograph of a small Bection <.f the lmmr surface
crater near the middle <>f the picture is BnlUaldna
formation known us the '•Struiglit Wull."

The prominent
Near the left margin is thg

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

439

THE NORTHERN HEAVENS

The maps shown on the following pages
represent the heavens as seen, on the different
dates given, from stations in and about the
latitude of New York (40° N) It is not an
easy matter to recognize the stars by looking
at the map. A certain amount of study is
necessary ; for, of course, the different stars of
a constellation are not linked togetherby lines
as they are in the map and furthermore their
magnitude is very much exaggerated. The
best plan for the novice is to start with a well
known constellation, such as that of the
Great Bear. The' "Dipper" which is a part
of the Great Bear is so conspicuous a group
in the northern skies that anyone can point
it out. Knowing the Dipper, the Pole Star
may readily be discovered by tracing a line
from 0 through o of the Dipper and about
five times as far. Around the Pole Star
(Polaris) which is of the second magnitude,
the entire northern heavens appear to revolve
once a day Having found the Pole Star the
constellation of Cassiopeia may be found by
extending a line from « of the Dipper through
the Pole Star and as far again to the other
side, where a cluster of stars in the form of a
large ragged W will be found, if we run a
line diagonally from a of the Dipper through
y and about eight or nine times as far again,
we shall come to the first magnitude star
Spica, in the constellation of the Virgin,
while a _ line extended from a through £ and
about eight times as far again will bring us
in the midst of the constellation of the Lion.
At the eastern end of this constellation, is
the second magnitude star Denebola, and
the distance from this star to Spica is about
the same as that froni Spica to Arcturus, the
first magnitude star in the constellation of
Bootes. Thus we may proceed building up
our knowledge of various groups and using
these groups as reference points to find new
constellations.

Contrary to custom in geographical maps,
our gtar maps are drawn with the east on the
lefthand side and the west on the righthand

CASSIOPEIA

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boo res f-^.

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THE "DIPPER" AS AN INDEX TO THE
HEAVENS.

side, while north is at the top of the page and
south at the bottom. This is due to the fact
that the heavens are viewed looking upward,
while the geographical map is viewed looking
downward. In locating stars and con-
stellations, it is best to hold the map over-
head when the actual points of the compass
and those marked on the map will bear the
true relation to each other.

NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY

If one views the heavens on the hours
specified under our map of January, he will
find almost directly overhead a bright star
with a triangle of lesser stars beside it. The
bright star is Capella or the Little She Goat
which is held on the ami of Auriga, the
Charioteer, whose left hand is represented by
the triangle of stars, i\, e, £. The constellation
bears no resemblance whatever to a charioteer
or a goat. In fact, very few constellations
bear any resemblance to the objects the
ancients supposed them to represent. Half-
way between Capella and the southern horizon
are the three bright stars forming the belt of
Orion. They are indicated in the map f, e, fi.
and they are centered in the square formed
by the stars, Betelgeux, Bellatrix, Rigel and
the star noted by the letter k. The little
triangle of stars at A mark the head of Orion,
while the line of faint stars at f represents a
lion skin that Orion is holding forth towards
the constellation of Taurus, the Bull. The
principal star of "this constellation is Alde-
baran, a bright red star, marking the left eye

of the bull, while his two horns are indicated
by the stars 0 and f. The star e is at the
right eye of the bull, and y at his nose. They
form with Aldebaran a triangle that is easily
recognizable. A little to the west of this
group is the interesting star cluster of the
Pleiades. In this cluster, there are six stars
easily visible to the naked eye, and many can
see seven stars, while observers with ex-
ceptionally good eyesight have been able to'
see as many as fourteen stars. A small spy-
glass will reveal large numbers.

The stars forming the belt of Orion point
in-the general direction of the first magnitude
star Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major,
the Great Dog. Sirius is by far the brightest
object in the heavens if we exclude the sun,
moon and planets. It is one of the_ nearest
suns outside our solar system, yet it is so far
off that it takes nearly nine years for its light
to reach us. The diameter of Sirius is about
twenty times that of the sun and its volume
is about seven thousand times greater. In
the constellation of Canis Major there are

4-H I

(UK COUNTRY AND ITS KKSiil Ki'KS

At ii o'clock
" 10:30

o'clock: Feb. 6
■30 '" " 14

At 9:30 o'clock: January 29

NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY,

two other first magnitude stars, but Siriua so
far outshines them that they look no brighter
than second magnitude stars. If we follow
the line from Aldebaran eastward beyond £
wo come t-> the constellation of Gemini, the
Twins, marked by the two bright stars,
Cast<>r and Pollux; while south of this con-
stellation is the first magnitude star Procvon
in the constellation of Canis Minor, the Little
Dog. It w-ill be noticed that most of tin-
constellations so far referred to lie adjacent to
the Milky Way. If we follow the Galaxy
northward, we find just beyond the con-
stellation of Auriga, the constellation of
Perseus, whose most interesting star is marked
P and u known as Algol, the Demon Star or
the Winking Demon. Every two days,

twenty hours and forty-nine minutes, t'lis
star begins to fade until, in the course of three
or four hours, it loses four-fifths of its light.
Then it begins to become brighter until
eventually, after three or four hours more,
it reaches its normal brilliancy. The star
marks the head of Medusa, which according
to the Greek legend Perseus was earr>ing
when he came across Andromeda chained to
the rock. Further north along the Milky
Way we come to Cassiopeia.

In the northeast is the great dipper forming
part of I'rsa Major, the Great Bear; far in
the cast is the constellation of Leo, the Lion,
in which are the prominent stars Regulus,
Denebola. The curved lins of stars ending
with Regulus is known as the Sickle.

(The Star Maps are all copyrighted uy.Munn & Co., Inc.)

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

441

U ii o'clock Mar.
" 10:30 " " 16

" 10 " 23

At 9:30 o'clock: March 30

NIGHT SKY: MARCH AND APRIL.

Our map for March and April shows most
of the constellations along the Milky Way
low in the western sky. The great dipper is
well up near the zenith with its pointer stars
P and a indicating the position of the Pole Star,
Polaris. Oddly enough the ancients repre-
sented the great bear as having a long tail,
indicated by the stars e, £, 7;. These are the
only stars that follow the outline of the beast.
•The star 0 is at the bear's mouth, while the
stars k, 1, and m, A, and v, f represent three
of his feet. The star £ is interesting because it
has a small companion, called by the Arabs
"Alcor." A little to the south of the zenith
u the constellation of Leo, referred to in the

previous paragraph. Below Leo are two
small groups known as Corvus, the Crow, and
Crater, the Cup. They are not very con-
spicuous; neither is Hydra, the Sea Serpent,
which stretches its long length across the
southern sky. Its brightest star is Alphard
which is of the second magnitude. Above
the head of the serpent is the inconspicuous
constellation of Cancer, the Crab. An
interesting feature of this constellation is a
faint star cluster, just visible to the naked eye
and marked on the map Praesepe, the
"Beehive." In the telescope this is seen
to be made up of a myriad of small bright
stars.

442

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

At 9:30 o'clock: May 30
THE NIGHT SKY OF MAY AND JUNE.

The constellation nearest the zenith in
May and June is that of Bootes, or the
Herdsman. A bright red star, Arcturus, may
be found in this constellation. It is known
as the Wandering Star for the reason that it
is slowly drifting with respect to the other
stars in the Heavens. Since the time of
Christ it has moved in a southwesterly
direction, fully one degree, or through a
distance equal to twice the diameter of the
moon. Its yearly displacement is two
seconds of arc. South of Bootes is the con-
stellation of Virgo, whose brightest star is
Spica. Between Virgo and Ursa Major are
two faint constellations known as Coma
Berenices, Berenice's liuir, uud Cuius
Venatici, thd Hunting Dogs. Close to the
southern horizon is the constellation of
Centaurus. the Centaur. Not very much of

this constellation can be r.een from our
latitude. Its brightest stars lie below the
horizon. They include a Centauri, the
nearest body outside the solar system. This
star is only 255.00(1 times as far from us as we
are from the sun. It takes its light 4i years
to come to us. In the southeast, low down
near the horizon may be seen the constella-
tion of Scorpio, the Scorpion. This con-
stellation is made up of a very easily recog-
nizable group of stars. It contains the
brilliant first magnitude star, Antares, at
each side of which are the lesser stars <r and t.
A line of stars traces the form of the Scorpion
as shown to better advantage in the next
map. The Scorpion embraces in its claws
the constellation Libra, or the Scales. In
the north above the Polar Star, we may see

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

443

the body of the Little Bear, Ursa Minor.
Most of the stars of this constellation are faint
with the exception of Polaris and two stars
0 and v which have been called the guards.
Between Ursa Minor and the Zenith, the
constellation Draco, or the Dragon, twine's its

long form. The stars y, $ and | ifcark the
head of the dragon. To the eastwara of tho
constellation Bootes is a partial ring of stars
known as Corona, or the Crown. This is one
of the few groups actually outlining the
object it is supposed to represent.

At 9:30 o'clock: July 30

NIGHT SKY: JULY AND AUGUST.

The Zenith constellation for July and
August is Lyra, the Lyre, with its bright blue-
white star, Vega, nearly directly overhead.
Just west of the Zenith is the constellation
Haroules whose stari form a ragged-looking H.
Below this constellation is Ophiuchus who
nvs in his grasp the constellation Serpens or
tie Serpent. Low down in the south the
constellation of Scorpio has dragged its full
length above the horizon and it is easy to
trace its body and tail ending with the stars

A and v. The opposite side of the Milky Way
now stretches its length across the sky, con-
taining in its extent many brilliant con-
stellations. Just east of Scorpio is the
constellation' of Sagittarius,, the Archer.
Well up in the_ southeast is the star Altair cf
the constellation Aquila, the Eagle, and.
just above Altair is the tinv constellation-,
Sagitta or the Arrow. To the east may be
seen Delphinus, the Dolphin, while to the east of
Lyra is the constellation of Cygn us, the Swan,

HI

m||j (HINTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

At ii o'clock; Sept
" 10:30

At 9 o'clock: June 7
■.30 " " M

At 9:30 o'clock: September 29

NIGHT SKY: SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER.

Our map for these two months shows no
constellation immediately overhead. Half-
way between the Zenith and the Pole Star
is the constellation of Cephus, a badly formed
W made up of stars that are not very bright,
with the exception of a which is of second
magnitude. The Milky Way now stretches
overhead and makes a beautiful sight on a
moonless ni?ht. About thirtv degrees south
of the Zenith is the constellation Pegasus.
Its three stars, y, a, and 0 form with the star a
of the constellation Andromeda, a large square

known as the "Square of Pegasus. Below
the constellation Pegasus is that of Aquarius,
the Water Bearer, while to the southwest is
tin- zodiacal constellation of Caprieornus. the
Sea Goat. This constellation is marked by a
very pretty naked eye dauble at o. The
most conspicuous star in the south is Fomal-
haut, of the Southern Fish. This brilliant
star can hardly be appreciated in northern
latitudes because it is not very favorably

C laced for observation. Below Fomalhaut is a
right little group known as Grus, (he Crane.

THE HEAVENS ABOVE

445

3-IOd/

w

i tv>* '

4* * ' >

"^£S

At ii o'clock:
" 10:30 "

Nov.

At 9 o'clock: Dec.
8:3<> ."

At 9:30 o'clock: November 30

NIGHT SKY: NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER.

Running westward from the zenith stretches
the constellation of Andromeda, the chained
lady who was rescued by Perseus. In this
constellation may be seen a faint nebula which
in a telescope is shown to cover an enormous
extent, a great whirl of nebulous material
Probably it represents a star in the making.
The great square of Pegasus lies just to the
south of the zenith. The southern sky is
filled by the constellation of Cetus, the Whale.
The most interesting star in this group is that
qi Mini, which on the average of once in

eleven months, blazes forth with a brilliance,
sometimes exceeding the second magnitude
Generally, however, it does not exceed the
third magnitude, while its normal brightness
is such that it is barely visible to the naked
eye. Between Cetus and the zenith are three
small constellations, t. e., Pisces, the Fishes.
Aries, the Ram. and Triangulus, the Triangle.
In the southeast sky is the wandering n ver, En
danus, while the eastern sky is filled with bril-
liant winter constellations described in the
paragraph on the January .and February map

WHEN UNCLE SAM'S WHISTLE BLOWS

The total number "f persons In the legislative, executive and Judicial services "f the Federal

Government on July l. 1915, was approximately l^s.711. The total number of

officers nud enlisted men in the Army, Navy aud Marine Corps is 17l\0l!S

PART III.

UNCLE SAMS AUTOBIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER I.
WASHINGTON— THE NATION'S CITY

YOUR city is the most beautiful
capital iu the world. There
are those who sing the praises
of London, Paris, Vienna, Berlin,
Rome, Petrograd, and all have,
claims well substantiated. But in
plan, architectural beauty, embel-
lishment, cleanliness, convenience,
absence of poverty, spaciousness, in-
terest, educational facilities — in all

resentation in the taxing body, gov-
erned without their consent, and
made to stand by and look on at
the spending of their money without
a word to say (officially) as to how
it shall be spent. And — strange
though it seems in American eyes —
this plan of the National City being
taxed and governed by the National
Government has resulted in the

THE GATEWAY— WASHINGTON'S MAGNIFICENT UNION STATION

that makes a city noted above other
cities, Washington, the Nation's City
as well as the Nation's Capital,
stands unique and unapproachable.
Most American of all cities, since
it is owned by the Nation's Govern-
ment, it is not less patriotic that it
is the one spot in all free America
where people are taxed without rep-

wonderful municipality which is
peerless among all cities.

A Mecca for the sight-seeing tour-
ist, Washington is still more a meet-
ing place for those who pursue
knowledge, for no spot on earth
holds so much of learning for those
who know how to dig it out. It
has been well said that in Wash-

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

448

mi; COUNTRY A.ND tTS fcESOURCES

ington is the answer to any answer-
able question — and some which have
no answers, too!

Considered as a municipality, en-
tirely apart from governmental ac-
tivities, Washington can hold up its
head among the best. In streets,
parks, and shade trees, in recrea-
tion centers, police, fire and school
systems, in privileges and pleasures,
Washington is behind none of its
size and ahead of many larger cities.
It has a minimum amount of crime,
a comparatively small indigent and
poverty-struck population, no for-
eign quarters, a climate which suf-

President and confirmed by the Sen-
ate, act as a combined Mayor and
City Council for the District of
Columbia's seventy square miles of
territory, having charge of all de-
partments of the local government.
Washington is taxed as other muni-
cipalities are taxed, but the money
is spent by Congress, which adds a
sum sufficient to make that raised
by taxation exactly half of the total
appropriated for any one year. In
return for this "half-and-half prin-
ciple" as it is known, all Govern-
ment property — and the Government,
of course, owns the most valuable

PANORAMA OF WASHINGTON

fers more from ill-repute than Wash-
ingtonians do from its warm sum-
mers, a just and liberal Government,
no graft, party politics or factional
fights, and. because it lives in and
among the greatest law-making body
in the world, a better comprehension
of national problems than is pos-
sible elsewhere.

CITY GOVERNMENT

Three commissioners, one of whom
must be a major in the Army En-
gineering Corps, appointed by the

land and buildings in .the city — is
free of taxation. The result of a
wise and liberal policy of city im-
provement has been the making of
a municipality with more shade
trees in proportion to its population
(95,000 trees) than any other in the
world, a city with a greater per-
centage of paved streets per popu-
lation than any other in the world,
a city with wider streets, straighter
streets, cleaner streets than any
other in the world, and the estab-
lishment of a parking system which

WASHINGTON— THE NATIONS CITY

449

will, when completed, be the eighth
wonder of the world for beauty, size
and variety.

THE CITY PLAN

The original plan of the city con-
templated its growth in an easterly
direction across the plateau which
forms the top of Capitol Hill, on
the summit of which stands the
I nited States Capitol.

The city perversely grew the oth-
er way, so that the wealthy resi-
dence and all the business section.

streets are numbered, those running
east and west are lettered. The
avenues, named for states in the
Union, all run at various angles.

The city is divided into four sec-
tions— Northwest, Northeast, South-
west, and Southeast, the division
lines being North, East and South
Capitol Streets, and an imaginary
line running through the park
known as the Mall, which would be
West C-ipitol Street if it existed.

Criss-crossing these streets, in ad-
dition to the eight spokes of ave-

A

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THE HEART OF THE NATION

and practically all the Government
buildings and activities, are west of
and therefore to the rear of, the
Capitol. Luckily, the rear elevation
of the Capitol is as beautiful as its
actual front.

From both the Capitol and the
White House radiate four great ave-
nues, distinguished from other
streets by running at an angle with
the gridiron which forms the city.
Washington' s north and south

nues radiating from the Capitol and
White House, are other slanting ar-
teries of travel, confusing to the vis-
itor, but making every part of the
city quickly accessible from every
other part to those who know how to
take advantage of those hypoth-
enuses of triangles. At junction
points of lettered and numbered
streets and avenues are parks, cir-
cles, or statues, productive of those
vistas and beauty spots which have

4.-.II

«tl R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

given the city the "pet name" of
"Cits of magnificent Distances."

PABKING SYSTEM

Five great parks of many acres,
twenty-six of more than one acre
and two hundred and seventy-five
smaller ones (not including the
great military reservation at Fort
Myer, Virginia, just across the river,
and connected by a bridge with the
Speedway), constitute a parking sys-

and Lincoln Memorial (not yet com-
pleted). The .Mall gives way to the
Speedway, a river park made from
reclaimed land, where there is swim-
ming and boating and baseball, golf,
tennis, polo and cricket grounds are
to be found, band concerts occur and
thousands of pedestrians, motorists,
horseback riders and drivers have
a place close to the beart of the
city in which to enjoy their favorite
recreations.

WHERE AN INAUGURATION IS HELD, AND THE PROCESSION

tern which lias no equal in the world,
splitting the heart of the city east
and west from Capitol Hill to the
Potomac River is the Mall, a wide
park on which are located (men
tioned in order from the Capitol, go-
big west i the Bon t a ideal Gardens,
the Fish Commission. Medical Mu-
seum, old National Museum, new
National Museum. Smithsonian
Building, old Department of Agri-
culture Building, two wings of the
new Department of Agriculture
Building, Washington Monument.

North of the Northwest Section is
the National Zoo. where nearly 1,500
animals of all sorts have comfortable
and beautiful homes, in many cases
in natural surroundings. Connected
to the Zoo is the National Park, a
reservation devoted entirely to nat-
ural recreation. Far-seeing states
men recognize the need of all cities
for ample parking space, and beauti-
ful Rock ('reel-: Valley lias been pre-
served for all time to the Nation,
nothing being done to it but the pro-
viding of miles on miles of velvet

Washington— the nation's city

451

roads and necessary bridges and
fords. The combined area of Zoo
and National Park is 1,776 acres.

North of the Capitol and east
from the National Park lies Soldiers'
Home Park, a beautiful hilly coun-
try with many fine roads, where the
Nation maintains a magnificent
home for its disabled soldiers.

Plans now under way contemplate
the connection of Zoo and National
Parks with the Speedway and Mall,
by driveways along the unimproved

WASHINGTON MONUMENT, WASHING-
TON, D. C,

part of Rock Creek Valley, a plan
which, when complete, will enable
a motorist to drive for five or six
hours without going over the same
road twice, or even running on a
city street, and yet be at no time
more than a few miles from the
center of the Nation — the United
States Capitol.

GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS

They are so numerous that a com-
plete catalogue would be wearisome.
The visitor usually makes first for
the Capitol, on Capitol Hill, where
he also finds the indescribably won-
derful Library of Congress, the two
huge office buildings devoted to the
use of Senators and Representatives,
the Union Station — second to none
in the world in beauty, and with a
concourse capable of housing the en-
tire standing army of the United
States — all in an extension of the
Mall.

The buildings on the Mall have
been mentioned ; in addition, just off
the Mall and giving on the Speedway
is the new Bureau of Engraving
and Printing, the largest plant of its
kind in the world.

The White House, or Executive
Mansion, stands between the Treas-
ury and State, War and Navy De-
partment Buildings, fronting on
Pennsylvania Avenue, and giving to
the rear on the "Ellipse," a part of
the Mall.

In the heart of the city are the
Post Office, Pension Office, Land
Office and Patent Office buildings
(this latter the office also of the
Secretary of the Interior) and scat-
tered everywhere are related
branches of the several departments.
On the outskirts of the city are the
United States Naval Observatory,
where, among other things, is the
great 26-inch refractor with which
the moons of Mars were first seen,
the Bureau of Standards, and fur-
ther out, the first settling reservoirs
of Washington's wonderful water
supply system, which includes a fil-
tration plant which provides crystal
water regardless of the mud which
may be in the Potomac.

All Government buildings may be
visited by visitors prior to two
o'clock, and no charge is made any-
where.

Any official in the Government,
from the President down, may be
seen by any one with legitimate bus-
iness, and every facility is put at

452

oTR COUNTRY' AND ITS RESOURCES

the disposal of him who seeks in-
formation by every department of

the Government, with the exception
of those necessarily restricted by
their very nature — such as Army
and Navy and Secret Service.

There are many buildings, bureaus
and activities which are wholly or
partly separated from the Govern-
ment. The National Geographic So-
ciety, the City Library, the Volta
Bureau, the Bureau of American Re-
publics, the stupendous Scottish
Rite House of the Temple, the hos-

non, Washington's Borne, Annapo-
lis, where they turn out Naval of-
ficers. Great Palls, wild and rugged
in beauty, source of the citj water
supply and historic in that George
Washington dug a canal around
them, the remains of which are still
to he seen, beautiful Harper's Ferry,
historic in Civil" war days and mag-
nificent in scenic beauty. Baltimore,
forty miles distant by road or rail.
Alexandria. Arlington (home of the
Lees, and now the National Burying
Ground) are all within an hour and

•hoto Ilnrris & Ewing
THE

•OPEN DOOR" AT THE WHITE HOUSE

pitals, schools, colleges, universities,
private laboratories. Carnegie Insti-
tute, etc., all add to the educational
possibilities of the city.

A dozen or more interesting lo-
calities surround the Nation's City.
The Navy Yard, where the big guns
are made, the Arsenal Grounds,
with the War College, St. Elizabeth,
the home of the Nation's insane,
Columbia Institution for the Deaf
and I uiinb. Continental Hall 1 1 >. A.
U.i. Corcoran Art Gallery, Mt. \'er-

a half of the Capitol, some within
a few minutes' travel, while Nor-
folk and the Newport News ship-
yards are but a night's boat ride
away.

Visitors not infrequently ask the
length of time necessary properly to
see the Nation's City. The resident,
who knows, usually answers. "Not
less than a year," and there is truth
in the statement.

indeed, those who are thoroughly
familiar with the great national col

WASHINGTON— THE NATION'S CITY

45:*

SCOTTISH KITE TEMPLE AT NIGHT

lections say that a year is hardly
enough really to see, let alone study,
the wonders of either the Museum
or the Library of Congress.

So to those who may find in this
brief sketch or the pictures which
accompany it, any impetus to visit
that city which is most truly Ameri-
can, and which belongs in part to
every American, it is said, "Stay as
long as you can and do not think
that a visit to every Government
building in Washington, which could
not possibly be accomplished in a
week, means that yon have really
seen the treasures which are yours.
For Washington, belonging to the Na-
tion, is its treasure house, and col-
lected, kept, and made accessible
here are such treasures of age, of
curiosity, of interest, of educational
value, of patriotic association, of

real Americanism, as will require
more time to see and appreciate
than any have time to give — which
fact is in itself one of the many
things which makes the Nation's

THE STATUE TO DAGUERRE

City an inspiration and an example
of all that is best in the ideals which
make the United States "one na-
tion indissoluble."

■yc

flfjTnf

%

t

■ i

T

=. .. • ■ —

THE CORCORAN ART GALLERY

CHAPTER II.
THE LEGISLATIVE HALLS

THE HEART OF THE NATION

THE United States Capitol
Building is the political and
sentimental center of the
United States, however far re-
moved it may be from the geo-
graphic center.

Fronting east, it stands on a pla-

Aquia Creek. Va., was laid with
Masonic ceremonies September 18,
1793, by President Washington. The
original designs were prepared by
Dr. William Thornton, and the work
was done under the direction of
Stephen H. Hallet, James Hoban,

Photo by Harris & Ewin

THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON

teau 88 feet above the level of the
Potomac, situated in latitude 38° 53'
20.4" north and longitude 77° 00'
35.7" west from Greenwich.

The southeast cornerstone of the
original building, constructed of
sandstone taken from quarries on

George Hadfield, and B. H. Latrobe,
architects. The north wing, finished
in 1800, and the south in 1811, were
then connected by a wooden passage-
way ! On August 24, 1814, the in-
terior of both wings was destroyed
by fire, set by the British. But the

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

45<;

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

damage was immediately repaired
and in 1818 the central part of the
building was begun, under the archi-
tectural superintendence of Charles
Bulfincb and was completed in L827.
Up to ls27 the total cost of building
and grounds was $2,433,844.13.

The cornerstone of the extensions
was laid on July 4, 1851, by Presi-
dent Fillmore, with Daniel Webster
officiating as orator. Thomas r.
Walter directed the work till 1S65,
when he resigned, and it was com-
pleted under the supervision of Ed-
ward Clark. White marble from

value is probably far below the actu-
al cost of replacement.

The building stretches from north
to south 751 feet 4 inches, and from
east to west 350 feet is its greatest
dimension. The area covered by the
building is 153,112 square feet, more
than 3.7 acres.

The original dome was of wood,
covered with copper, but this was
replaced by the present structure of
cast iron in 1865. With the bronze
statue of Freedom on top, ID feet
f» inches high, the total weight of
the dome is 3,983 tons. The dome

Photo Harris & Ewing

THE SENATE CHAMBER IS NEVER PHOTOGRAPHED IN ACTION, THEREFORE
HUMAN INTEREST IS LACKING IN THIS PICTURE

the quarries at Lee, Mass.. was
used in the walls and the columns
came from quarries at Cockeysville,
.Mil. The lbmse extension was first
occupied for legislative purposes
December 16, L857, and the Senate
January 4. 1859.

The Capitol Building and Grounds
are officially valued as follows:
Building, $15,000,000; grounds, $10,-
400,00(1; total $25,400,000, But the

is 287 feel 5 inches above the base
line of the east front and 217 feet
11 inches above the top of the balus-
trade of the building, its greatest

diameter at the base is 135 feet
5 inches. The dome surmounts and
covers what is known as the Ro-
tunda, a circular room ;t7 feet 6
inches in diameter, and is 180 feet
.". inches high from the lloor to the
top of the canopj

TllL LEGISLATIVE HALLS

457

The three great Government activ-
ities housed by the Capitol are the
Senate, House of Representatives
and the Supreme Court.

The United States Senate Cham-
ber is located in the left wing of the
Capitol, or, as is better known, the
North Wing. It has seats, of course,
for the ninety-six senators who
compose the Senate — two from each
State regardless of size or popula-
tion— and is surrounded with a gal-
lery, in which more than a thousand
spectators can find seating place.

The room, 113 feet 3 inches long
by SO feet 3 inches wide and 36
feet high, is chaste, almost severe
in architectural design (see picture),
although the iron and stained glass
ceiling gives a touch of co'or with
the coat of arms of each State.

The Senate is entirely too digni-
fied a body ever to permit itself to
be photographed, but is free in its
welcome of visitors. The galleries
are always open except when the
Senate is in Executive session, when
even the reporters', diplomatic and
senators' private galleries are emp-
tied and locked.

Arranged in a succession of semi-
circles, the senators' individual
desks are all within sight and voice-
reach of the chair of the Vice-Presi-
dent, who presides over the Senate.
Democrats sit on the Vice-Presi-
dent's right, and Republicans on his
left, a general statement which hard-
ly holds good when the Senate is in
session, because senators move
around, talk from every point of
vantage or sit with their friends.

Ordinarily no one is permitted
upon the floor of the Senate save
present and ex-legislators, the pages
who serve them with books, carry
messages and run errands,, such
clerks and officials as are a part of
the official life of the Senate and
representatives of certain newspa-
pers and press associations. Only
when the "Thanks of Congress" have
been given to some fortunate in-
dividual is this rule abrogated, the
"Thanks of Congress" carrying with

it the right to enter the Senate
Chamber on the floor. But both
houses of Congress extend the privi-
lege of the floor to distinguish visi-
tors at their pleasure.

Directly opposite, in the South
Wing of the Capitol, is the House of
Representatives, where the 433 mem-
bers of the House have their delib-
erations. It is similar in arrange-
ment to the Senate, but is much
larger, being 139 feet long, 93 feet
wide and 30 feet high. Its galleries
will seat more than 2,000 people.
The House has not space to provide
each member with a desk ; indeed, if
the country keeps on growing and
the House keeps on in its present
way of thinking, it will not be able
to provide all its members with
seats in a short while. As every
one knows, the House itself fixes the
population of a district which shall
entitle that district to one repres< n-
tative, but to increase the popula-
tion quota with regard to the in-
crease in the total population only,
would be. for instance, to increase
New York's representation and de-
crease that of some western State:;
not growing so fast, or some eastern
States, like Delaware and Rhode Isl-
and, which naturally grow more
slowly, though as fast in proportion,
as larger States.

The House is generally admitted,
even by itself, to be unwieldy in
size, now that it possesses 435 mem-
bers, exclusive of the delegates from
noncontiguous possessions. What it
will be when a new census is taken
and a new apportionment made, no
one can say. Meanwhile, semi-circu-
lar rows of seats serve the members
apparently as well as do their desks
the senators. For no member gets a
chance to make a speech of such
length as will require voluminous
notes, reports and books, speaking
time being the most precious posses-
sion in the House. In the Senate,
where any senator who can get the
floor can speak until dumb from
throat paralysis, a desk capable of
holding a good-sized slice of the Con-

4r,S

OCR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

gressional Library — with which the
Capitol is connected by a subway
with electric book carrying trains —
is a vital necessity.

No place in the world has a great-
er interest to the public than the
National Legislature of the United
States. Two hundred and fifteen
newspapers and press associations
have 304 representatives to the press
galleries of both houses, and a ma-
jority of these are on duty every
hour of every session of Congress.
Of course, during executive sessions,
all newspaper men are excluded, but
as many Of the press representatives
make it their business to have in-
timate friends among the members
of Congress, there is little if any-

RepubliC and those who wrote the
Constitution with unique and widely
different powers these three
branches of the Government operate
in unity and serve as a check upon
each other.

The Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives, forming together the
Federal Legislature, commonly called
Congress, are entirely dissimilar
bodies. The House of Representa-
tives lives for only two years, then
dies completely, a new House being
formed by the biennial election of
the 4.".r> Representatives of the peo-
ple of the various States.

The Senate never dies: it has 1 n

a continuous body since its first cre-
ation. Senators are elected for six

THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY

thing which is really secret. Indeed,
both Congress and the President
trust the newspapers far more than
is generally realized, and it is a
credit to the profession that what
should be kept under cover for
diplomatic reasons, is concealed, not,
because of absence of knowledge on
the part of the correspondents, but
because of loyalty and patriotism.

It would be idle to discuss wheth-
er the Senate, the House of Repre-
sentatives, or the President of the
United States is the most important
factor in its government. Clothed
by the wisdom of tin- founders of the

years, but a senatorial election i-
held every two years, one-third of
the members of the Senate going out
of office biennially. The result of this
system is that a majority of the
Senate is always composed of older
and experienced members. Inasmuch
as many Senators are re-elected,
term after term, there is always a
large proportion of men of ripe ex-
perience and long service in the
upper house of ( Jongress.

Any variety of legislation with one
important exception can originate in
either branch of Congress. Appro-
priation bills can only originate in

THE LEGISLATIVE HALLS

450

the House of Representatives, but
no appropriation bill can become a
law until it is concurred in by the
Senate.

No bill of any sort, whether origi-
nating in the Senate or the House
of Representatives, becomes a law
until it has been to the Presi-
dent for his signature. He is sup-
posed to return these bills to Con-
gress within ten days. If he signs
the bill it becomes a law ; if he fails
to sign in ten days a bill automati-
cally becomes a law. If, however,
the President returns a bill vetoed,
that is, with his signature refused,

difference between 21S and 290 is
72, the theoretical voting power
which the President possesses in the
House of Representatives.

In the Senate, the bare majority of
the 96 Senators is 49 and a two-
thirds majority necessary to pass a
bill in the Senate over the Presi-
dent's veto is 64, the difference be-
ing 15 Senators, representing the
theoretical power of the President
in vote in the Senate.

Methods of work in Senate and
House are entirely different. There
is no attempt in the Senate to limit
the speaking of a Senator on any

Photo Harris & Ewing

STATE, WAR AND NAVY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C.

it is required that the bill be passed
again by both Houses of Congress
by a tiro-thirds majority before it
can become a law.

This is equivalent to giving the
President the power to vote in the
negative, in theory at least, of sev-
enty-two Representatives and fifteen
Senators.

If a bill be passed in the House
of Representatives by a bare ma-
jority of one of the 435 members it
will receive 218 votes in the affirma-
tive against 217 in the negative. If,
however, the President vetoes the
bill, it will require 290 votes to pass
it, 290 being two-thirds of 435. The

subject. He, therefore, can talk as
long as he desires and a "filibuster,"
as it is called, when some Senator
or group of Senators desires to de-
feat a bill by talking it to death, or
talking until Congress expires, or
until its opponents are so disgusted
that they will yield to the "filibus-
ter," is not of infrequent occurrence.
No such procedure is a possibility in
the House. In the House debate is
limited by the rules or by mutual
agreement to a certain length of
time.

When a bill is introduced into the
House, it is immediately referred to
some committee. There are fifty-

460

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

nine committees in the House and
seventy-five in the Senate. In addi
tion there are a Dumber of joinl
committees.

The two most important commit-
tees in the House are those on Ways
and Means, and Appropriations, and
membership in either is a mark of
confidence by the House. The
House eleets the Ways and Means
Committee, which acts as a Com-
mittee on Committees, and it ap-
points all the other committees.
Chairmanship of a committee is a
matter of seniority of service in the
House.

No legislation gets to the floor of
the House for the discussion of the

xsrv^ ,

POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT BUILDING
House as a whole except as referred

to the House by the committee or by
unanimous consent. Therefore, the
committee is extremely important to
all legislation and nine out of ten
of the thousands and thousands of
bills of all kinds, which are pro-
posed in the House, are quietly

strangled in committee and never see

further light

Inasmuch as many such bills are

proposed merely for "home consump-
tion" and in order to make an im-
pression on the "folks hack home."
this system works out without hard-
ship either to the Representative
proposing the hill, the hill itself, or
the House of Representatives as a

whole.

The committee, the members of
which may he anywhere from three
to twenty in number, will debate a
proposed hill, hold public hear-
ings for the benefit of interested
parties, make amendments to it,
and finally offer it. perhaps in a
completely changed form, hack to the
House for consideration. The House
can then pass it or reject it at its
pleasure. Having succeeded in pass-
im: the House, such a hill goes to
the Senate and the Senate can then
either pass it or reject it. In the
more common cases a hill passed by
the House which is not entirely
pleasing to the Senate is revised or
amended by the Senate and then
sent hack to the House. In case it
is impossible for the two branches
of the Legislature to agree upon a
bill, a Conference Committee is ap-
pointed, usually of three members of
each House, which Conference Com-
mittee meets and endeavors to ef-
fect a compromise and the com-
promise hill is frequently passed
without further debate by both
Houses of ( Jongress.

Xo story of the House of Repre
sentatives would be complete which
did not contain a few words of ref-
erence to the most powerful figure
in the House, who is. of course, the
Speaker. The Speaker at one time
appointed I he members of all com-
mittees. Including that of the Com-
mittee of Rules, which determines
the order in which important meas-
ures shall come before the House.
In the old days he was himself
chairman of this committee, but, in
1910, the House took this power
away from its Speaker. It increased
the Committee on Rules from five
to ten and agreed that the House
itself should make the appointments.

The legislative halls

461

This has shorn the Speaker of his
previous power but he still has
plenty left. He can recognize or
refuse to recognize any member try-
ing to address the Chair and can
thus accelerate or retard the pas-
sage of any bill.

The fact that, the House elects
usually as its Speaker a national fig-
ure in politics and a man of great
force of character as well as of
brains is one of the safeguards of
the national legislature. He is, of
course, invariably elected by a strict
party vote, a Democratic House of
Representatives becoming the more
powerful as a Democratic organiza-
tion by possession of a Democratic
Speaker, the same obtaining for a
Republican House.

The wisdom of our forefathers in
providing for a Senate, composed of
two men from each State, represent-
ing the States, and not the people,
to act as a check upon the Repre-
sentatives of the people in the House
of Representatives, is continually
made manifest. The Senate acts
often as a brake upon the too head-
long action of the House and many
an ill-considered piece of legislation,
enacted with insufficient debate, and,
perhaps, in the heat of partisan feel-
ing in the House, has been so altered
in the Senate that its originators
could not recognize it when it finally
came back to them.

The final bulwark of the people
against wrong action on the part of
the National Legislature is the Su-
preme Court, which must pass upon
the constitutionality of disputed en-
actments ; and with first a commit-
tee, next a House, then a Senate,
then, perhaps, a joint committee,
again an action by both House and
Senate, a possible veto, a re-enact-
ment over that veto and finally pos-
sible review by the Supreme Court,
as to the admissibility of legislation
under the Constitution of the United
States, that law must be ingenious
indeed which is unjust or ill-advised
when finally read into the Statutes
of the United States.

SUPREME COURT

If the Senate feels its dignity to
such an extent as never to yield to
the blandishments of the press pho-
tographer or motion picture director,
what must be said of the Supreme
Court? To imagine this body per-
mitting itself to be photographed is
an impossibility. Of course, there
are plenty of photographs showing
the Supreme Court in session, but
none of them are real. All are made
by combining pictures of the vari-
ous justices with an interior of the
Court; a real photograph has never
been made.

The Supreme Court room was
formerly the Senate Chamber. Un-
til 1S59 the Senate met in the pres-
ent Court room, the Court then sit-
ting in the room beneath, which is
now the Law Library. It is a sim-
ple and impressive room even when
unoccupied, and when the Court is
in session no American can look
upon its deliberations unmoved, for
it represents to him the very apothe-
osis of the democracy on which his
nation is built, the justice and lib-
erty which make America, America.

As every American knows, the
Supreme Court is the one branch
of the Government which has abso-
lutely no connection with politics,
with patronage, with partisan meth-
ods of any kind. Justices, appointed
for life, can only be removed for
high crimes or misdemeanors, and
no justice ever has been removed
since the Court was founded. Presi-
dents with Supreme Court vacancies
to fill have all realized that the
American people would scrutinize
their appointments with the keenest
eyes, and let the Senate know in no
uncertain manner if they did not
approve. The result has been a con-
tinuing body which represents the
highest legal and personal attain-
ments, and one which, although it
often makes decisions which are un-
satisfactory to many people, is never
questioned as to its integrity by its
most violent critics.

An appointment to the Supreme

462

OT'R COTJNTRT AND ITS RESOURCES

Photo Harris & Bwing

UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT

Bench is justly regarded as exceeded
in honor only by the Presidency, and
many contend that as the one is a
permanent appointment, the other
but a temporary position, the nine
Supreme Court Judgeships represent
the nine highest honors America
has to offer. Certain it is that no
man who has sat on the Supreme
Bench has ever lacked for apprecia-

tion from his fellow citizens, or
honor from them for the high at-
tainment which put him there.

The Court sits from October to
June, from noon until 4 P. M., five
days in the week, reserving Satur-
day for consultation. Strangers are
permitted to visit the court at all
times, although accommodations are
limited.

THE PRESIDENT DELIVERING THE INAUGURAL ADDRESS

CHAPTER III.
THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

THE real functions of the government which obtain in

President of the United States Europe.

are. curiously enough, com- As a matter of fact, the President

paratively little understood by the of the United States has executive

body politic. He is usually re- powers which, in many ways, are

Photo Copyright by G. V. Buck. Washington. T). C.

EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE WHITE HOUSE

ferred to in conversation as being considerably less in extent than

the equal of any prince, poten- those possessed by many a prime

tate, czar or other ruler of the minister of a European country and

monarchies or other forms of decidedly less power than many

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

466

mi: COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

monarchs. On the other hand, the
Presidenl of the United States en-
joys certain privileges and powers

ii, ,1 possessed by even the rulers of
absolute monarchies.

The three principal functions of
the Presidenl may be stated as a
control of foreign relations, those
powers which are concerned with
Legislation, and those which relate
t<> the domestic administration, the
latter largely concerned with the
matter of appointments and patron-
age, particularly in the appointment
of members of the Supreme Court.

The President lias a practically
unfettered initiation in regard to all

when the Mexican war began with-
out any initiative by Congress.

A question frequently asked of
those who know, and especially by
new Congressmen who come for the
first time to the great legislative
halls upon Capitol Hill, is "What is
the form of the President's power
over Congress? By what means
does he bend this immense legisla-
ture representing the forty-eight
States and the hundred million of
people, to his will?"

The answer to this question is ex-
tremely complicated if taken up in
detail, but in its broad essentials
the control of the President over

Photo Harris & (Swing

TELEGRAPH ROOM, EXECUTIVE OFFICES, WHITE HOUSE

foreign affairs, but is checked in
his control of the foreign relations
Of the United States by the Senate.
Which must approve by a two-thirds
majority all treaties negotiated with
a foreign country through the De-
partment of State for the President.
While the power to declare war

belongs entirely to Congress, it is
perfectly possible for an Executive,
without an act of Congress, virtu-
ally to engage in hostilities. An ex
ample of this is recent within the
public mind in the expedition sent
across the Mexican border. A some
what similar case occurred in 1845

Congress may be stated to lie in
four great things. In the first place,
there is that political unity of a
party which means so much to the
politician. Supposing that the Pres
ident has a majority in Congress
(and few Presidents have made
much headway without it*, the Con-
gress is naturally desirous of ap-
pearing before the country as sup-
porting and aiding the President in
his work. The President then has
the political power of his party be-
hind him in any request which he
makes of Congress or any sugges-
tions which he gives them.

THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

46]

This more or less sentimental con-
sideration, however, is probably of
less avail than the three great pre-
rogatives which the President has.
These are, of course, the power of
vetoing legislation passed by Con-
gress, which does not meet his views,
the power of calling an extra ses-
sion of Congress and the power of
making numerous appointments,
many of which serve as "payments"
for political work or for something
done for the President by some Con-
gressman or Senator.

The veto is employed a hundred

President responsible for the con-
duct of the Government and are usu-
ally with him, right or wrong. Sen-
ators and Representatives know that
when a bill is vetoed, they will have
to explain and explain pretty
promptly to their constituents just
why they are right and the Presi-
dent is wrong if they are going to,
to use a slang phrase, "get by with
it."

It has sometimes been suggested
by some members of Congress who
did not want legislation desired by
the White House to pass, that by

Photo Harris & Ewing

THE WHITE HOUSE— HOME OF THE PRESIDENT AND CENTER OF WASHINGTON'S

SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

times in a veiled threat to once in
actuality. More than one Senator
or Representative has been quietly
told, perhaps by the President, more
likely by some friend, that this or
that particular bill has no oppor-
tunity to pass unless a tiro-thirds
majority can be mustered. This
threat of the veto is usually suffi-
cient to keep undesirable legislation
from passage. Every Senator and
Representative knows that the peo-
ple of the United States hold the

making an agreement to end the ses-
sion of Congress on such and such
a day and so arranging matters that
the objectionable legislation did not
Come up, the President might be cir-
cumvented without an open break.
Older members, however, know
that the Congress has power only
to end its deliberation. The Presi-
dent has the power, guaranteed un-
der the Constitution, of calling a
special session at any time when it
may be necessary to do so.

40S

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

More than one President has in-
formed a Congress, anxious to end
without passing legislation which he
deemed necessary, thai if it did so,

a special session would Immediately
be called. Here again is the neces-
sity for the legislator to explain to
his constituents just why there is an
extra session! The majority will
not believe the President called a
special session of Congress without
a reason therefor and the question
most naturally arising is "What is
that reason?" If it had to be ex-
plained to the people that Congress

time become that recent Presidents
have ruled that they positively would
not see office seekers. Mr. Wilson
has gone even further and refuses
to discuss patronage matters with
Senators, Representatives or politi-
cians. Unquestionably, all Presidents
have had to break their rules at
times, but generally this refusal has
served to give them much time for the
public business which would other-
wise be wasted. Most Presidents refer
officer seekers to heads of depart-
ments and thus lift from their
shoulders a burden none the less

PhotO Harris & Owing

THE WHITE HOUSE KITCHEN IS LARGE ENOUGH TO PROVIDE FOR LARGE

BANQUETS

has been negligent or has been at-
tempting to pass over its responsi-
bilities and failed to support the
President, there is naturally apt to
be fireworks at the next Congres-
sional election.

The appointive power of the Pres-
ident has its drawbacks. Thousands
who want jobs either try to see the
President personally, or try to have
"a friend" see him in their behalf. So
gnat have office seeking calls on his

great thai it is concerned with

minor matters.

Of course, the office seeker still
dogs the President's door and many
who, as one quaint wit expressed
it. "also want to serve who only
Stand and wait" are still to lie found
in the White House. Put if such
an pffice seeker gets the President's
car he is apt to find a chilly atmos-
phere when he gets to the real
reason for his visit.

THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

469

While it is true that the Presi-
dent has no powers over Congress
save such as are conferred upon him
by the veto, the extra session call,
appointments and the opinion of the
people of the United States, it may
nevertheless be said that his con-
trol of the Government is more ab-
solute than his strictly legal powers
might presuppose. More and more
is this single man being considered
by the American people as its Gov-

sired enactments, which are thus
known as '"executive legislation."

As a matter of fact, the President
has no power to introduce any bills
into Congress. He can merely indi-
cate to Congress by messages what
his desires, opinions or feelings are
in regard to any immediate legisla-
tion. But practically, having at his
disposal Federal patronage which is
of value to many Senators and Rep-
resentatives, he frequently can ob-

Photo Harris & Ewinpr

THE FAMILY LINEN IS WASHED IN THIS LIGHT AND AIRY LAUNDRY

eminent, and less and less is it hold-
ing Congress responsible for the con-
duct of that Government.

If it were not for the provision
which makes it necessary for the
Senate to concur in Presidential ap-
pointees to the more important posi-
tions at his disposal he would be
invested with a much vaster power
than he actually is. Nevertheless, a
tremendous quantity of Federal pat-
ronage is within the gift of the
President and it is by the use of this
patronage that he is frequently able
to swing Congress into line with de-

tain the introduction of such bills
or push through such legislation as
may seem to him to be good.

It will sound strange to many
ears but the so-called Cabinet of the
United States has no legal existence.
The cabinet ministers of England are
an integral part of the Government.
The cabinet officers of the United
States are but the heads of the sev-
eral departments.

True, there is nothing in the Con-
stitution or any law which restricts
the President from making such free
choice as he may desire of those

t70

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

gentlemen who stand at the head
of the several great departments of
the Government, but when they are
called into conclave to advise with
the President, they have no power
whatever save as personal friends,
giving their advice and opinions in
matters which he may submit to
them.

An exception should be noted to

the restricted powers of the Presi-
dent when a state of war exists.
At such a time the Presidential pow-
er immediately swings to its maxi-

Republicans, Democrats, Progres-
sives. Prohibitionists, Socialists, men

of .every pauty and political faith,
unite in support of the President in
matters which concern the welfare
of. the country, and to this patriotic
feeling and belief in the integrity
of the holder of the Presidential of-
fice can he found the root of that
power which the President enjoys
in time of national st ress.

The only way in which a Presi-
dent can he removed from office is
by—the process of .impeachment. This

Harris & Ewing

THE PRESIDENT'S ROOM AT THE CAPITOL
Rarely nsed except at the end <>f a session

mum. As commander of the Army
and Navy and charged with the wel-
fare of the Nation, in time of war
his powers may exceed those vested
in any other niler in any country.
The American people have an im-
mense reverence for the position of
( Jhief Executive of the Nation, and
any man who obtains that office is
at once invested by all Americans
with an authority and a dignity far
bevond that of any other ruler.

process is a prerogative of the
House of Representatives, An im-
peached President is tried by the

Senate sitting as a court with the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States presiding. Only

one President of the United States
has ever been impeached. Andrew
Johnson, and the impeachment was
not sustained.

In addition to advising with the
cabinet officers in regard to the con-

THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

471

duct of the business of the United
States Government, the President
has a busy time with foreign re-
lations. He must not only appoint
all ambassadors and ministers to
foreign countries, but he receives the
Ambassadors of foreign countries to
this nation and deals directly with
those representatives of foreign gov-
ernments and rulers. He has an
enormous official and personal cor-
respondence, the greater part of
which, of course, is handled in a

not yet been accomplished, but which
has threatened on more than one
occasion and may yet become a fact.
There is nothing in the Constitu-
tion or the laws of the United States
to forbid the continual re-election of
one man to the Presidency.

Still a third unwritten law is that
popular opinion that the President
must necessarily attend to business
in the White House. A President is
entitled, by lack of any restrictions
to the contrary, to live in any part

Photo Harris & Ewing

THE PRESIDENT SIGNING THE SAN ANTONIO BILL, MAKING IT LAW

routine manner by a large force of
clerks in the White House.

There are a number of unwritten
laws in regard to the Presidency,
most of them more honored in the
breach than in the observance. One
is to the effect that the President of
the United States should not leave
the United States during his term
in office, a thing, however, which has
been done.

Another concerns the election of
a President for more than two con-
secutive terms, a feat which has

of the United States he desires and
cannot be compelled by any power,
other than that of public opinion, to
remain in Washington or attend to
business ! He can take a vacation
every day in the year if he wants
and no one can call him to account
save the House of Representatives
by impeachment proceedings.

The President of the United States
is an extraordinarily busy man. Just
how busy it is almost impossible for
the uninitiated to appreciate.

While it is perfectly possible for

472

nil! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

any citizen of the United States who
has business with the President to
see him, it is not possible for even
B Senator or a member of the Cab-
inet to walk in upon the President
uninvited. It is necessary for any
one having business with the Presi-
dent to make an engagement in ad-
vance. At the beginning of every
business day a slip of paper headed
The President's Engagements" is
laid before the President showing

The Presidents Engagements

T -rpjny. Fobruary i~ . -

\^

10:25 a. a. ' Rep; Saall and Beaters
Carohr.) delegation.

10:20 ftiu. l>p; Gudrer.

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raring.

exactly what he has or his secre-
tary has agreed he shall do with
his time. Such a Presidential en-
gagement slip is reproduced here-
with, and shows that from 10:25 A.
M. to 12:4.") P. M.. which is shortly
before lunch, the President has en-
gaged to See and talk with sixteen
different people.

As a matter <>f fact, twenty-four
hours is all too short for any Presi-
dent to get through the hundreds of

routine and thousands of official
matters which require his attention
daily. No President has ever abused
the confidence of the American peo-
ple. All have been extremely hard-
working men who took vacations and
laid down their work only when
their health absolutely required it.
For the job of being President of
the United States is perhaps the
hardest individual piece of work
which any man can possibly do and
the reward of $75,000 a year and
$25,000 for traveling expenses is far
smaller than the responsibility of
the position should demand. When
it is considered that there are sev-
eral men in this country drawing a
salary of one million dollars a year
or more for commercial work and
any number of railroad presidents
and presidents of corporations whose
salaries exceed that of the President
of the United States, it can well be
understood how the principal emolu-
ments of the office of Chief Execu-
tive are found in the honor and
glory of directing the destinies of
the greatest nation in the world, and
not in any material reward which
the position may bring.

Outside the White House, the per-
son of the President is always
guarded with Secret Service at-
tendants. If he goes to the theater
— which the present occupant of the
White House does often — he has. of
course, his own box. Somewhere
near are the Secret Service men.
wlm precede him to the box and
watch it from the rear and from
the audience. If the President goes
automobiling, a huge Secret Service
car with 1". S. s. S. on the rear,
follows him. When out on the high-
road, no ear passes the Secret Ser-
vice car and the White House car
from the rear. If the President
happens to want to travel at fifteen
miles an hour, he may come into
the city at the head of a proces-
sion of a hundred cars, all of them
anxious to pass, but none of them
able to get by the Secret Service
car. the crew of which is taking no

THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

473

chances with the crank who might
annoy, or worse, the President of
the United States.

The public reception — a relic of
days when visitors to the Nation's
Capitol were few and far between —
*is one of the trials of a President's
life. He must learn to be more
than expert in his greeting, or he
will have a hand and arm incapaci-
tated for work by the too cordial
grasps of his admirers. Indeed,
often in small receptions to a visit-
ing delegation or convention, at-
tendants will quietly pass the word
and request all visitors to be careful
not to grip the President's hand
hard. Perhaps no President who
ever shook hands with five thousand
people in an afternoon had this mat-
ter down to a finer science than
President Roosevelt, whose method
of shaking hands left the visitor
nothing to do but grin and bear it;
the firm and sudden grip was, of
course, self-preservative.

The President, nominally the head
of Washington society, has little
time for gayety.and the White House
is not normally the scene of enter-
tainment. Of course, official recep-
tions to the Cabinet, and to members
of Congress and to the Diplomatic
Corps are necessary and frequent oc-
currences, but as a rule our Presi-
dents have been too busy to indulge
in those formal and elaborate func-
tions more characteristic of older
countries than one which is largely
built on the idea of the value of
time. c

The President of the United
States, in addition to his numerous
duties as Chief Magistrate, finds
time to be also President of the
American Red Cross, cx-offieio Pres-
ident of the Washington National
Monument Society, patron cx-officio
of the Columbia Institution for the
Deaf, a Member of the Smithsonian
Institution, Chairman of the Arling-
ton Memorial Bridge Commission
and member of the Commission on
Memorial to Women of the Civil
War.

THE WHITE HOUSE

No nation in the world with any
pretensions to size or importance
houses its king, potentate, emperor,
czar or president as poorly as the
United States provides for its Chief
Executive, and probably not until
the Executive Mansion or White
House crumbles to dust or burns to
the ground will this condition be
remedied. No President likes to say
that what was good enough for
Washington and Lincoln and Mc-
Kinley is not good enough for him.
President Roosevelt had the courage
to add two wing-like structures to
the White House, the one for the
accommodation of visitors at the
great White House receptions, the
other to accommodate executive of-
fices, clerks, files, etc., but with this
exception the White House stands
to-day what it has been for many
years, a residence not comparable in
size, beauty, convenience or utility
with a dozen private residences in
the Capitol City and thousands
throughout the land.

Built of Virginia freestone, and
painted white since 1S14 to conceal
the marks of the fire which de-
stroyed it when the British worked
their will with the then struggling
capital, the White House is to-day
what it has always been — a two
story structure but 170 feet long and
86 feet deep. It is beautiful with
the beauty of simplicity ; designed
by James Hoban from the home of
the Duke of Leinster near Dublin,
it has architecturally satisfying
lines, and the great portico with
Ionic columns is not unimpressive.
Moreover, the house is modernized
inside, and has, of course, all modern
conveniences of light, heat, ventila-
tion, convenient kitchens, laundries,
garage, servants' quarters, etc. But
the fact remains that it is a relic of
an age when the Government of the
United States was on trial, when the
tide which receded from the ' pomp
and royalty of the mother country
ran far up on the shores of sim-
plicity and plain liviug, and that

Photos Harris & [Swing

State Dining Room

The East Room

Garden Facade

THE WHITE HOUSE

The President's Desk

THE PRESIDENT— THE EXECUTIVE

47-"»

it is all out of keeping with the won-
derful buildings now being con-
structed for the Government, and
built by it for its own use in times
past. It is almost laughable to think
of a two million dollar memorial to
Lincoln — who so loved simplicity —
and a shelter provided for the exist-
ing chief magistrate which would be
dear at almost any price !

The White House is beautifully sit-
uated in extensive grounds, with a
private and fenced-in park of its

own to the rear as well as in front,
in which are to be found many shade
trees, plants of all sorts, fountains,
a tennis court, etc.

The White House is open to visi-
tors at certain times, and any one
can see the President who has a
real reason for wanting to see him.
But he is well guarded from an-
noyance or the mere seeker for sen-
sation, and no one gets to him with-
out running a gauntlet of guard,
and clerk and secretary.

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CHAPTER IV.
THE CABINET

IN the Cabinet deliberations the
President is both morally and

legally supreme. While the Cabinet
of the United States has no legal ex-
istence as such it has by custom
become an integral part of the
United States Government. The
Constitution says that the President
has the power to "require the
opinion in writing of the principal
officer in each of the Executive De-
partments upon any subject relating
to the duties of their respective
offices." Later on, it says, "The
Congress may by law vest the ap-
pointment of such inferior officers
as they deem proper in the Presi-
dent alone, in the courts of law or
the heads of the Departments." That
is all the Constitution says of what
is generally called the Cabinet.
However, the President's choice of
the heads of the various Depart-
ments of the United States is rare-
ly, if ever, questioned by the Sen-
ate, it being recognized that he has
the right to call to his assistance
men in whose judgment and wis-
dom he has confidence and with
whom he can work and advise to
the benefit of the country at large.

When the Cabinet meets, the
President sits at the head of the
table and the various cabinet mem-
bers around it in the order of their
seniority. It is generally supposed
that questions are submitted to the
Cabinet first for discussion and
later that the Cabinet officers vote
upon them. Such, of course, is not
the case. The Cabinet acts in an
advisory capacity only and has no
power over the President in any

way whatsoever. There is a story,
probably apocryphal, of General
Grant, who, when he and his Cab-
inet disagreed as to a certain policy,
offered to put the matter to a vote.
The President is reported to have
Called upon his Cabinet members in
turn, beginning with the Secretary
of State. .As each Cabinet member's
name was called, he is said to have
answered "Aye." When the Presi-
dent had finished he called his own
name and gravely responded "No."
Then he said to the assembled Cab-
inet officers, "There are seven votes
in the affirmative and one in the
negative and," here President Grant
paused, "the negative vote is in the
majority." Whereupon the Presi-
dent did as he had intended to do
all along in spite of the advice of his
officers !

In the event of any serious disa-
greement between a Cabinet officer
and the President there is only one
course open and that is a resigna-
tion. Historic instances will occur
to many. What is not so generally
known, however, is that some Cab-
inet officers have to be asked to re-
sign. Sometimes the asking is out-
right, as in a story told of Grant
who made one of his Cabinet offi-
cers sit down at his own desk and
dictated his resignation for him, and
sometimes it is more gentle, as in
the case of President McKiuley and
Secretary of War Alger. There was
difference of opinion between Presi-
dent McKinley and his Secretary
of War, and it is understood that
it was not until a very vigorous
hint had been given by those close

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc,

478

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

to the President that Mr. Alger saw
the light and tendered his resigna-
tion. The case of Mr. Ballinger is
fresh in the public mind and stu-
dents of polities, at least, will not
need to be reminded that this gentle-
man stayed in office for some time
after there was a decided degree of
friction between him and the Chief
Magistrate of the land.

The President has a personal sec-
retary, who in turn lias many as-
sistants. The job of being private
secretary to the President of the

United States is not. as one might
think, that of an amanuensis. Ra-
ther has the office Lhe dignity of a

personal cabinet officer. The sec-
retary to the President of the United
States must be a man of great tact,
ready memory, and have an able
grasp upon political affairs. He
is the one man about him whom the
President must be in a position to
trust absolutely, and the character
of the many irentlemen who have
held this office has been well shown
by their future careers.

Xporto —
WoMiv/CA" mc ys/P

V«?i* .£.£ *>;?,?& CLAIMS.^

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THE DISTRICT Of COLUMBIA.
architect excise seiters
assessor riREOEPT streets

AUDITOR HEALTH STCtEAHIMC
CHARITY IHSPECT* SURVEYOR
COUNSEL POLICE TREES
COLLECTOR SCHOOLS HATER OEPT
PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION

ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH OF THE

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT

Prepared by Mr. w. i. Swanton. Assistant Engineer IT. s. R. S.

CHAPTER V.

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE

THE following brief notes rep-
resent the abridgment of
a ninety-two page pamphlet,
prepared by the direction of the
Secretary of State, which shows
the enormous condensation nec-
essary in a work of this kind.

Vice-rresident die, the Secretary of
State would become President. This
really makes him the "Premier," al-
though there is no official sanction
for the title.

The act of July 27, 1789, created
an executive department, to be

Photo by Harris & Ewing

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES

Separate written authority from the President must accompany his signed document

before the Seal can be impressed

The Department of State is of par-
ticular interest, in view of the fact
that, after the Vice-President, the
Secretary of State is the ranking of-
ficial of the Government. In other
words, should both the President and

known as the Department of For-
eign Affairs. By the act of Sep-
tember 15, 17S9, the name of the
department was changed to that of
the Department of State, the princi-
pal officer thereof to be called the

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

180

OUR COl VI'KY AND ITS KKSOlKi KS

Secretary of state, and provision
was made for the safe-keeping of

the acts, records, and seal of the
United States.

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA

The Department of State looks ask-
ance at any reproduction of the Great
.Seal and will never sanction its publi-
cation or use. but it will be found in
cyclopedias, dictionaries and atlases. So
its publication here needs no apology.
although a request to make a cut of
a passport was denied the writer largely
because the Great Seal was shown <>n
it. When properly understood the seal
should have the same respect as the
flag. A committee was appointed an
July 4. 177U. to prepare a Great Seal.

posed to represent Congress. This all
symbolizes the union and strength of
tiie States jiri served through the aid of
Congress. The olive branch in the "dex-
ter" talon represents peace, while the
"sinister" talon holds thirteen arrows.
In his beak is a scroll with the motto,
"E Pluribus Initm" (one unity composed
of many parts i. What is above is
called the "crest." but it is not really
a crest at all, because the stars could
not be tangibly represented as in na-
ture, and attached to the top of a hel-
met, or could reasonably be represented
as resting on a shield.

The reverse, which has never been
cut, consists of an unfinished pyramid.
In the zenith is an eye in a triangle
surrounded by a glory. On the base
of the pyramid are the letters,
"MDCCLXXVI," and underneath the
motto. "NOVUS ORDO 8ECLORUM"
(a new series of ages), while above is

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES

The members were Benjamin Franklin,
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, Sev-
eral excellent designs were submitted,
but Congress was not satisfied, so an-

other <• uittee was appointed emu

posed of Messrs. Middlcton. Boudinot
and Rutledge, and finally, on June 20,
IT^U, the Greal Seal, as we now know,
was adopted, it must be admitted that
the heraldry is a little mixed, as might
be supposed of the sturdy Americans
who were far removed from the Heralds'
College. A heraldic Interpretation is
dry and uninteresting, but in brief the

i about as follows: The Ameri
can Eagle bears on his breast an es-
cutcheon composed of thirteen bars, sup
porting top, or a "chief," which is sup-

tbe motto, "ANNUIT COEPTIB" (God

lias favored the Undertaking).

The origin of "E PLURIBUS VMM"

is shrouded in mystery and is variously
ascribed to Virgil and others.

In the early days the Secretary of
state was charged with a multitude
<if duties, for under him till patents
were issued: but in 1849, the work
of the Patent Office was turned over
to the Department of the Interior.
Copyrights were also under the
direction of the Secretary of State,
but in 1850 it was transferred to
another department The census en-

' \£&;>-"'i*J»

182

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

RECORDS OF THE FIRST CENSUS OF 1780 MADE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
ARE STILL IN EXISTENCE

umeration was also under the charge
df tin- Secretary of state in the
early days. Certain matters relating
tn pardons were also under his juris-
diction, but in 1893 President Cleve-
land transferred such work to the
Department of Justice. In 1856 a
law was passed providing that the

Secretary of State should lie author-
ized to grant and issue passports,
and to cause thein to he granted and
verified in foreign countries by dip-
lomatic and consular officers, under
such rules as the President mi?ht
prescribe.

What might be called the organic

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE

4S3

law, indicating the duties of the Sec-
retary of State, is comprised in Sec-
tion 202 of the Revised Statutes,
reading as follows :

"The Secretary of State shall per-
form such duties as shall from time to
time be enjoined on or intrusted to him
by the President relative to correspon-
dences, commissions, or instructions to
or with public ministers or consuls from
the United States, or to negotiations
with public ministers from foreign
States or princes, or to memorials or
other applications from foreign public
ministers or other foreigners, or to such
other matters respecting foreign affairs
as the President of the United States
shrll assign to the department, and ho
sh-all conduct the business of the de
partment in such manner as the Presi-
dent shall direct: Provided, That the
Secretary of State may prescribe duties
for the Assistant Secretaries, the soli-
citor, not interfering with his duties as
an officer of the Department of Justice,
and the clerks of bureaus, as well as
for all the other employees in the de-
partment, and may make changes and
transfers therein when, in his judgment,
it becomes necessary. (June 20, 1874,
vol. 18. p. 90.)"

By the act of February 3, 1887,
the Secretary of State was charged
with the duty of certifying to the
two Houses of Congress, and with
the publication in some newspaper,
of the Presidential election returns.

Among the other duties of the Sec-
retary of State might be mentioned
the communication and correspon-
dence of the President with the gov-
ernors of the States and the attesta-
tion of all presidential proclama-
tions, together with the publication
of the laws and the Statutes at
Large in the United States, em-
bracing all acts of Congress, all
proclamations issued by the Presi-
dent, all treaties between the United
States and foreign nations, includ-
ing postal conventions, and all con-
current resolutions of the two
Houses of Congress.

The compensation of the Secretary
of State, under the act of September
11, 1789, was $3,500; under the act
of February 20, 1819, it was raised
to $6,000: in 1853, increased to
$8,000; and under the act of March
4, 1911, increased to $12,000.

In 1909 the question of reorganiza-
tion was taken up, and it was found
necessary to modernize and other-
wise make for efficiency. This was
caused by a number of reasons. The
foreign trade of the country had
been growing at an enormous extent.
The people, endeavoring to market
their manufactured products abroad,
found themselves engaged in com-
petition with the highly developed
industries of England, France, Ger-
many, and other countries; they
were brought face to face, not only
with the questions of tariffs and
customs administration, but also
with the need of that measure of
diplomatic and consular support en-
joyed by their competitors.

The war with Spain had marked
a new epoch in the history of Ameri-
can foreign relations. The American
people, after having been regarded
for many years as a stay-at-home
nation, absorbed in the development
of their own resources, had sudden-
ly been recognized to have assumed
a new position among nations, so
that it would be thenceforth impos-
sible for this Government to escape
the responsibilities of being one of
the great forces in international af-
fairs, and of taking a more promi-
nent part in discussions and delib-
erations concerning matters of in-
ternational importance.

Consequently the Department of
State had been called upon to deal
with a multitude of questions with
which, before the Spanish war, it
had not been concerned. The Hague
ci inferences, the adjustment of boun-
daries and other questions between
the United States and Mexico and
Canada, the arbitration of disputed
questions with Canada and other
nations, the negotiation of treaties
to meet new conditions arising from
the growth of the foreign interests
of our people, the efforts of the
United States to improve the condi-
tions in Central America, the con-
stantly increasing number of ques-
tions arising from the development
of Mexico, and the adjustment of

4M

<>r it corXTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

difficulties and protection of the in-
terests nf nearly 10,000 of our citi-
zens who had temporarily taken up
their residence and invested nearly
$1,000,000,000 of American money in
thai country, the reorganization and
Improvement of the Diplomatic and
Consular Services, and the increas-
ing demand of the puhlic upon those
organizations — all these things and
others had thrown upon the Depart-
ment of State a mass of correspond-
ence and a great number of questions
for determination or discussion en-
tirely beyond its ability to treat
efficiently with the then existing
equipment.

Every immigrant coming to this
country, and every American going
to a foreign country, increases, in
one way or another, the possibility
of work for the 1 department of State.
The inadequacy of the force of the
Department became critical, and a
tentative reorganization of the De-
partment upon modern lines, with a
view to a maximum degree of effi-
ciency, was then effected.

The Secretary of State is peculiar-
ly the adviser of the President, es-
pecially those points involving broad
questions of general policy, and the
Secretary of state is also responsible
for the conduct of foreign relations,
and, in addition to the time required
for the study of important diplomatic
questions, he receives the represen-
tatives of foreign governments for
the discussion of diplomatic business
and is in touch with matters affect-
ing treaties with the Committee on
Foreign Relations of the Senate. The
Assistant Secretary, who receives a
salary of $f>.<H><t a year, does not
specialize, but must be prepared to
be in close touch with all the larger
questions of foreign policy, and re-
lieve the Secretary, as far as pos-
sible, of a portion of the general
work. This is a very responsible
position in the Department

The Second Assistant Secretary is
assigned to the detailed treatment
by the departmental and diplomatic
services of current diplomatic and

political questions, except such spe-
cial matters as may. from time to
time, be assigned the Counselor. It is
his duty to direct the activities of
all the bureaus and divisions in re-
spect to the diplomatic questions
that are constantly arising all over
the world, and to examine and ap-
prove the correspondence in respect
to such matters prepared for the
signature of the Secretary or the
Acting Secretary. His salary is $4,-
500 a year.

The administrative direction of
the Diplomatic Service, as distin-
guished from the treatment of sub-
jects of international intercourse, is
delegated to the Third Assistant
Secretary of State, lie is responsi-
ble for the maintenance, upkeep, and
expenditures for that service. He
also directs the treatment of all
questions in relation to international
congresses, conferences, commissions.
expositions, and ceremonial matters.
and has the supervision of the Di-
vision of Western European Affairs.
He is charged with the approval or
disapproval of expenditures of pub-
lic moneys in the department and
the foreign service. His salary is
$4,500 a year.

The administration of the Con-
sular Service and the direction of its
activities in connection with the pro-
motion and extension of our foreign
commerce is delegated to the Direc-
tor of the Consular Service, who has
immediate control of expenditures
for the maintenance of that organi-
zation. He is also charged with
the study and treatment of such
special subjects as may. from time
to time, be assigned to him by the
Secretary and the Assistant Secre-
tary of State. He also receives
s 1,500 per annum.

The Chief Clerk has the direction
of the internal business of the de-
partment, of the clerical force, the
methods of transacting business, in-
cluding the receipt and transmission
of mail, the purchase of supplies,
etc. His compensation is #3,000 a
year.

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE

485

Generally speaking, the questions
of law, international or municipal,
which may be involved in the de-
termination of matters brought be-
fore the department, are referred to
the Solicitor's office. The result is,
that the scope of the work coming
before the office is very broad, in-
cluding questions of constitutional
law, admiralty law, criminal law,
the law of torts, contracts, etc., and,
of course, all branches and fields of
international law. The more im-
portant of the matters which actual-
ly come before the office for determ-
ination are as follows :

Diplomatic claims

International extraditions

Citizenship, naturalization, expatria-
tion, passports, etc.

Extraterritoriality and the jurisdiction
of ambassadors, ministers, or consular
courts

Neutrality, belligerency, contraband,
asylum, etc.

International arbitrations

Distribution of awards

There are also seven chiefs of
bureaus as follows:

Accounts and disbursing clerk

Appointments

Citizenship

Consular

Diplomatic

Indexes and archives

Rolls and library

The affairs of the department are
also handled by Chiefs of Divisions,
for

Far Eastern affairs
Information
Latin-American affairs
Mexican affairs
Near Eastern affairs
Western European affairs

There are also translators, as-
sistant solicitors, law clerks, private
and confidential secretaries, as well
as dispatch agents in New York,
San Francisco, New Orleans and
London.

In the Bureau of Rolls and Li-
brary are contained some of the
most valuable documents concern-
ing our history, including the Declar-
ation of Independence, Continental
Congress records, and historical
manuscripts of all kinds.

OUR CONSULAR SERVICE

FOR many years it has been the
custom for Americans to ridi-
cule the American Consular
Service, holding up to scorn the
comic opera creation who held the
center of the stage with his palm-
leaf fan and slow drawl as the pro-
totype of a consular officer. In the
distant past there may have been
an occasional officer who lived down
to this popular conception, but it is
so no longer.

The modern Consular Service had
its inception in the days of Grover
Cleveland, although it was Theodore
Roosevelt who put it upon its pres-
ent firm, non-political and non-par-
tisan basis, with merit and merit
only as the cause for advancement.
Since then it has grown in efficiency
and size until to-day it is unrivaled.
In the past good results from the
Consular Service were infrequent

because of the method of appoint-
ment of consular officers without re-
gard to their particular fitness for
the places to which they were sent,
or as the former Secretary of State,
Mr. Root, expressed it, "The placing
of round pegs in square holes."
Since 1S96, when the first order pro-
viding for an examination before
appointment went into effect, the
Service has been strengthened and
improved until those who knew it
in the old days can no longer recog-
nize it.

Men who pass an examination for
a Consular position to-day have to
know a variety of things and know
them well. Examinations are both
oral and written, the two counting
equally. The oral examination de-
termines the candidate's business
ability, alertness, general contem-
porary information, and natural fit'

4S6

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

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THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE

487

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4s>

(UK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

ness for the service, including moral,
mental and physical qualifications,
character, address and general edu-
catiou and good command of Eng-
lish. The written examination in-
cludes French, German or Spanish;
the natural, industrial and commer-
cial resources and the commerce of
the United states, especially with
reference to possibilities <>f increas-
ing and extending the foreign trade
of the United States; political econ-
omy and the elements of interna-
tional, commercial and maritime
law. American history, government
and institutions; political and com-
mercial geography; arithmetic (as
used in commercial statistics, tariff
calculations, exchange, accounts,
etc. i ; the modern history, since
1850, of Europe, Latin-America and
the Far East, with particular atten-
tion to political, commercial and eco
nomic tendencies.

After passing a stiff examination
and getting an appointment, young
consular officers go to school in
Washington, at a "model consulate"
in the Consular Bureau at the state
Department. Every newly appointed
consul is required to proceed to
Washington and spend at least thirty
days in this school learning just
what he will he expected to do when
he reaches his post, anil how he may
get the best results from whatever
conditions confront him. Although
this special form of training has
been in force hut a comparatively
short time it is showing its good
effect by the improvement in the
work and reports of the consular
officers, and by the attitude of
appreciation and understanding of
their duties which the consuls dis-
play as a result of the instructions.

A consular officer has no duty of
greater importance than that of
service to his countrymen. The
splendid service rendered hy United
States consular officers in the field
of the great war now raging is well
known, and none of the unfortunates
who \\ ere helped in Berlin, London,
Paris and Belgium hy our Consuls
General, consuls and consular agents

will ever forget the service they
received. Some of the accompany-
ing pictures show how great was the
pressure on the consulates of the
great neutral nation in the countries
at war. where citizens of the enemy
clamored for help, relief, passports,
and the hundred and one things that
only a trained, hard working and
disinterested staff could do.

Important as such services are,
they are. luckily, not often required.
.\dr is the gathering and transmit-
tal of commercial information, im-
portant though that duty is. the
whole work of a consular officer.
Only when reading a list of his
duties is it easy to comprehend why
those who till such positions must
he highly educated and alert men.

For instance, a consular officer
must maintain and promote all in-
terests of American citizens. lie
is required to protect them in all
privileges provided hy treaty or con-
ceded hy usage; to vis6 and. when
so authorized, to issue passports;
when permitted hy treaty, law or
usage, to take charge of and settle
the personal estates of Americans
who may die abroad, without legal
or other representatives, and remit
the proceeds to the Treasury in case
they are not called for by a legal
representative within one year; to
ship, discharge, and. under certain
conditions, maintain and send Amer-
ican seamen to the United States;
to settle disputes between masters
and seamen of American vessels; to
investigate charges of mutiny or In-
subordination on the high seas and
send mutineers to the United States
for trial; to render assistance in the
case of wrecked or stranded Amer-
ican vessels, and, in the ahsence of
the master or other qualified per-
son, take charge of the wrecks and
cargoes, if permitted to do so hy the
laws of the Country; to receive the
papers of American vessels arriving
at foreign ports and deliver them
after the discharge of the ohliga-
tions of the vessels toward the mem-
hers of their crews, and upon the
production of clearances from the

490

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS UKSOI'RCES

proper foreign port officials; to cer-
tify to the correctness of the valua-
tion iif merchandise exported to the

United States where the shipment
amounts to more than $100; to acl
as otlieial witnesses to marriages of
American citizens abroad; to aid in
the enforcement of the immigration
laws, and to certify to the correct-
ness of the certilicates issued by
Chinese and other officials to Chi-
nese persons coining to the United
States; to protect the health of our
seaports by reporting weekly the
sanitary and health conditions of
the port at which he resides, and
by issuing to vessels clearing for the
United States hills of health describ-
ing the condition of the ports, the
vessels, crews, passengers and car-
goes; and to take depositions and
perform other acts which public
notaries in the United States are
authorized or required to perform.

In addition to the foregoing du-
ties, consular officers in China. Tur-
key. Siani. Muskat, Morocco, and a
few other so-called non-Christian
countries, are invested with judicial
powers over American citizens in
those countries. These powers are
usually defined by treaty, but gen-
erally include the trial of civil cases
to which Americans are parties, and
in some instances extend to the trial
of criminal cases.

The service now employs about
l.Too people. The principal officers
and their compensations are as
follows:

Consuls General

Consul General of Class l $12,000

Consul General of class 2 8,000

Consul General of Class :: 6,000

Consul General of class 4 5,500

Consul General ><( class r, 4.r»00

Consuls

Consul of Class 1 .$s.(illll

Consul of Class 2 6,000

Consul of class :; 5,000

Consul of Class 4 4.500

Consul of Class 5 4.000

Consul of Class 6 3,500

Consul of Class 7 ."..000

Consul of Class s 2,.r.00

Consul of Class <> 2,000

At present there are 241 consuls
in the nine classes.

The consular officer in London.
Paris or Berlin lives a busy, active

and civilized life. The consular of-
ficer in some small place in a semi-
civilized country may have little to
do and no amusement. But in either
event he is a willing servant of his
country and doing for it a work
beyond computation in price, al-
though it is a fact that fees col-
lected for the multitudinous serv-
ices he renders almost equal the cost
of the service.

All fees received by any officer in
the consular service for services ren-
dered in connection with the duties
of his office or as a consular officer.
including fees for notarial services,
and fees for taking depositions, exe-
cuting commissions or letters roga-
tory, settling estates, receiving or
] laying out moneys, caring for or
disposing of property, are paid into
the Treasury of the United States.
The only compensation of officers is
their salaries, except in the case of
consular agents. Consular agents
are paid one half of the fees re-
ceived in their offices, up to a maxi-
mum sum of one thousand dollars
in any one year, the other half being
paid into the Treasury.

The fees collected do not nearly
equal the expenditures of the serv-
ice. Fees for a deposition may run
to $100, depending on its Lengti*

The illustrations on page 481 show-
two types of consulates in far conn
tries — the handsome residence at
Cairo, Egypt, contrasted with the
mud-roof dwelling ill far off Tur-
key. But the type of dwelling makes
little difference to its occupant — he
is there to serve, to open the mar-
kets of his country to American
manufacturers, and to serve Amer-
icans in need or in distress. In-
deed, he does more than serve his
own countrymen — not Infrequently
he serves the merchants of the coun-
try to which he is sent.

The Consular Reports — public
documents published from the let-
ters sent in to the Consular Bureau
of the State Department — contain
vital information regarding trade

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE

491

conditions in all countries. How
valuable these are was well brought
out recently in a published inter-
view with the president of the Shef-
field (England) Chamber of Com-
merce. It seems that certain Shef-
field manufacturers had sudden need
to know the sources and distribution
throughout the world of wolfram
ore, from which tungsten, essential
in the manufacture of high-resist-
ance steel for guns and armor, is
made. The president of the Cham-
ber of Commerce was unable to
locate the information he desired
from British sources. In his inter-
view he said :

"It was suggested tbat I would find
it in the reports of American consuls.
I did find it there. I discovered where
wolfram was produced ; the quality,
state of the trade and amount avail-
able. That information assisted ma-
terially in bringing about the manufac-
ture of tungsten powder in this country,
which, although started during the war,
has been a magnificent success and will
be a great success after the war."

The Director of the Consular
Service, Mr. Wilbur J. Carr. who
has risen from the ranks in his

twenty years of service, called at-
tention recently to a unique feature
of America's system, which is one
reason why it is so efficient. This
is the system of inspection. Speak-
ing of it, Mr. Carr said :

"In this field we have been pioneers.
The law of 190G created five so-called
consul generals at large. Each travels
over a grand division of the world, in-
specting each consular office once every
two years. The Department of State
is enabled by this means not only to
detect and rectify irregularities in the
work of individual consuls, but to en-
force uniformity of method and organ-
ization. If a consular officer in a far-
off corner of the globe, by inspiration or
careful thought evolves an improved
method of performing some routine duty
or discovers a new and effective way
by which the foreign trade of the United
States may be promoted, this is discov-
ered by the inspector on his next visit
and if' found good in every way, com-
municated to the Department of State,
and by it to the other consuls at large,
with the result that all which is best in
individual offices and in the practices
of individual officers becomes eventually
the common property of the service.
Other governments recognize the prac-
tical value of this inspection system.
Great Britain has undertaken something
analogous in a tentative way and the
French foreign office has a like project
under consideration."

OFFICIAL DUTIES

SECRETARY OF STATE

The Secretary of State is charged,
under the direction of the President,
with the duties appertaining to corre-
spondence with the public ministers and
the consuls of the United States, and
with the representatives of foreign pow-
ers accredited to the United States ; and
to negotiations of whatever character
relating to the foreign affairs of the
United States. He is also the medium
of correspondence between the President
and the chief executives of the several
States of the United States ; he has the
custody of the Great Seal of the United
States, and countersigns and affixes such
seal to all Executive proclamations, to
various commissions, and to warrants
for the extradition of fugitives from
justice. He is regarded as the first in
rank among the members of the Cabinet.
He is also the custodian of the treaties
made with foreign states, and of the
laws of the United States. He grants
and issues passports, and exequaturs to
foreign consuls in the United States are
issued through his office. He publishes
the laws and resolutions of Congress,

amendments to the Constitution, and
proclamations declaring the admission of
new States into the Union.
COUNSELOR

The Counselor becomes the Acting
Secretary of State in the absence of the
Secretarv. He is charged with the su-
pervision of such matters and the prep-
aration of such correspondence as may
be assigned to him by the Secretary.

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE

Under the organization of the depart-
ment the Assistant Secretary, Second
Assistant Secretary and Third Assistant
Secretary are charged with the super-
vision of all correspondence with the
diplomatic and consular officers, and are
intrusted with the preparation of the
correspondence upon any questions aris-
ing in the course of the public business
that may be assigned to them by the
Secretary.
DIRECTOR OF THE CONSULAR SERVICE

The Director of the Consular Service
is charged with the general supervision
of the Consular Service and such other

492

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

duties as may be assigned to him from
time to time by the Secretary.

C II IFF CLERK

The Chief clerk lias general super-
vision of the clerks and employees and
of departmental matters-, charge <>f the
property of the department.

FOREIGN TRADE ADVISER

General supervision of foreign trailo
matters; diplomatic and consular corre-
spondence and miscellaneous correspond-
ence relating thereto.

DIPLOMATIC BUREAU

Diplomatic correspondence and miscel-
laneous correspondence relating thereto.

DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS

Diplomatic and consular correspond-
ence, "ii matters ether than these of au
administrative character, ill relation to
Central America. Panama, South Amer-
ica and the West Indies.

DIVISION OF MEXICAN AFFAIRS

Diplomatic and consular correspond-
ence, on matters ether than these of an
administrative character, in relation to
.Mexico.

DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS

Diplomatic and consular correspond-
ence, on matters other than those of an
administrative character, in relation to
Japan, China, and leased territories,
Siberia. Hong-kong, French [ndo-Cbina,
Siam, straits Settlements. Borneo, Bast
Indies, India, and in general the Far
East.
DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS

Diplomatic and consular correspond-
ence, on matters other than those of an
administrative character, in relation to
Germany, Austria Hungary, Russia, Rou-
mania, Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro,
Turkey. Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia,
Egypt, and colonies belonging to coun-
tries of this series.

DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN

A F FA IKS

Diplomatic and consular correspond-
ence, on matters other than those of an
administrative character, in relation to
Greal Britain (Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and British colonies qoI else-
where enumerated i . Portugal, Spain.
France, Morocco. Belgium, the Kongo,
Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Neth-
erlands, Luxe m b ii r g, 1 »enmark and
Liberia.

CONSULAR m "i:i- m

Consular correspondence and miscel-
laneous correspondence relating thereto,
and administrative matters relating to
the consular service.

BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS

Custody of the Great Seal and appli-
cations for office, and the preparation
of commissions, exequaturs, warrants of
extradition, Departmental Register, dip-
lomatic and consular lists and consular
bonds : correspondence and other matters
regarding entrance examinations for the
foreign service.

BUREAU OF CITIZENSHIP

Examination of applications for pass-
port-, issuance of pas-ports and authen-
tications: receiving and filing duplicates
of evidence, registration, etc., under act
of March 'J. 1907, in reference to ex-
patriation of citizens and their protec-
tion abroad: keeping of necessary rec-
ords thereunder: conduct of correspond-
ence in relation to the foregoing.

BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES

Recording and indexing the general
correspondence of the department;
charge of the archives.

BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS

Custody and disbursement of appro-
priations and indemnity funds, and cor-
respondence relating thereto.

BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY
Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc.;
promulgation of the laws, treaties, Ex-
ecutive orders and proclamations; care
and superintendence of the library and
public documents: care of papers relat-
ing to international commissions.

DIVISION OF INFORMATION

The preparation and distribution to
the foreign service of diplomatic, com-
mercial and other correspondence and
documents important to their informa-
tion upon foreign relations: editing
"Foreign Relations" of the United States.

OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK

Editing and indexing the laws, resolu-
tions, public treaties and proclamations
for publication in the Statutes at Large.

SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDING
The superintendent of the State. War
and Navy Department Building is the
executive officer of the commission

created by Congress, consisting of the
Secretaries of State. War and Navy, for
the government of this building. He has
charge of. care, preservation, repairing,
warming, ventilating, lighting and clean-
ing of the building, grounds and ap-
proaches, and disburses the special ap-
propriations for this purpose: he has
charge of all the employees of the build-
ing proper, and appoints them by direc-
tion of the Secretaries,

CHAPTER VT.

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY

nr

^HE

Secre-

1

tary

of

the

Treasury

is

charged

by

law

with

the

manage-

meat

of

the

na-

tional

finances.

lie prepares plans
for the improve-
ment of the reven-
ue and for the support of the public
credit ; superintends the collection of

the revenue, and directs the forms of
keeping and rendering public ac-
counts and of making returns ;
grants warrants for all moneys
drawn from the Treasury in pur-
suance of appropriations made by
law, and for the payment of moneys
into the Treasury ; and annually
submits to Congress estimates of the
probable revenues and disburse-
ments of the Government. He con-
trols the construction and niain-

THE TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

I'.U

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

tenance of public buildings, the
coinage and printing of money, the
administration of the Coast Guard
and flic Public Health branches of
the public service. He is ex-officio
chairman of the Federal Reserve
Board created by act approved De-
cember 23, 1913, known as the
•'Federal Reserve Act."

There are three Assistant Secre-
taries in charge of the bureaus and
divisions of the Treasury Depart-
ment. One has charge of Public
Health Service, Supervising Archi-
tect's Office, the selection of sites for
public buildings, Coast Guard, Ap-
pointment Division, General Supply
Committee, Section of Surety Bonds
and all unassigned business of the
Department.

To the Assistant Secretary in
charge of fiscal bureaus is assigned
general supervision of all matters
relating to the Office of the Comp-

troller of the Currency, the Office
of the Treasurer of the United
States, the Bureau of Internal Reve-
nue, the Bureau of the Mint, the
Office of the Comptroller of the
Treasury, the Auditors of the sev-
eral departments, the Register of
the Treasury, the Bureau of En-
graving and Printing, the Division
of Bookkeeping and Warrants, the
Division of Loans and Currency, the
Division of Mail and Files, the Divi-
sion of Printing and Stationery, the
Division of Public Moneys, the Se-
cret-Service Division, the Federal
Farm Loan Board, and the Office <>f
the Disbursing Clerk.

To the Assistant Secretary in
charge of customs is assigned the
general supervision of the Division
of Customs, of all matters pertain-
ing to the Customs Service, and the
Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, as
referred to later on.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk is the chief ex-
ecutive officer of the Secretary, and,
under the direction of the Secretary
and Assistant Secretaries, is charged
with the enforcement of depart-
mental regulations general in their
nature: is by law superintendent of
the Treasury Building and other re-
lated buildings and rolling stock
belonging to the department: the
direction of engineers, watchmen,
firemen, etc., connected with the
maintenance and protection of the
Treasury buildings, etc. : the ex-
penditure of appropriations for con-
tingent expenses; the administrative

control of appropriations made for
Government exhibits at various ex-
positions; the supervision and gen-
eral administration of the General
Supply Committee; handles offers in
compromise cases; the custody of
the records, files and library of the
Secretary's office: the custody of all
sites for proposed buildings in
Washington; the checking of all
mail relating to the personnel of the
Treasury Department; the handling
of requests for certified copies of
official papers, and the charge of all

business of the Secretary's office
which is not otherwise assigned.

COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY

The Comptroller of the Currency
is the chief officer of that bureau of
the Treasury Department which is
charged with the execution of all
laws passed by Congress relating to
the issue and regulation of the na-
tional currency, generally known as
national bank notes, secured by
United States bonds: and under the
supervision ,,f the Federal Reserve
Board is also in charge of the issue

of circulating notes to Federal Re-
serve banks.

In addition to these powers the
Comptroller exercises general super-
vision over all national banks
throughout the United states, in-
cluding Alaska and Hawaii, in the
matter of their organization and
regulation. He is vested with the
power to appoint receivers and to
enforce penalties prescribed for

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

495

SEPARATING CHARRED BANK BILLS

violations of the national bank act.
Under the Federal Reserve act he
executed and issued the certificates
or charters for the Federal Reserve
banks. The Comptroller of the Cur-
rency is ex officio a member of the
Federal Reserve Board.

Reports of condition of all na-
tional banks are made to the Comp-
troller not less frequently than five
times a year, by the banks, and also

periodically by the national bank
examiners appointed by him.

His powers are exercised under
the general supervision of the Sec-
retary of the Treasury, but under
the law his annual report is made
direct to Congress ; all other bureaus
of the Treasury Department report
to Congress through the Secretary
of the Treasury, and these reports
are printed.

TREASURER OF THE UNITED STATES

The Treasurer of the United
States receives and keeps the
moneys of the United States and
disburses the same upon war-
rants drawn by the Secretary of the
Treasury, countersigned by the
Comptroller of the Treasury, and not
otherwise. He takes receipts for all
moneys paid by him and gives re-
ceipts for all moneys received, and
all receipts for moneys received by
him shall be endorsed upon warrants
signed by the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, without which warrant so
signed, no acknowledgment for

money received into the public
Treasury shall be valid. He renders
his accounts to the Comptroller of
the Treasury quarterly, or oftener if
required, and transmits copies there-
of, when settled, to the Secretary of
the Treasury- The moneys in his
hands are at all times subject to the
inspection of the Secretary of the
Treasury and the Comptroller of the
Treasury. The Treasurer makes a
report to the Secretary of the Treas-
ury every 30th of Juno, showing
the condition of all of the several
accounts.

4l)6

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

COMMISSIONER OF

The Commissioner of Internal
Revenue has general superintend-
ence of the collection of all in-
ternal-revenue taxes, the enforce-
ment of internal-revenue laws, ap-
pointment of internal-revenue em-

INTERNAL REVENUE

ployees, compensation and duties of
gaugers, storekeepers and other
subordinate officers; the preparation
and distribution of stamps, instruc-
tions, regulations, forms, blanks,
hydrometers, stationery, etc.

TESTING ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS

DIRECTOR ()!■' THE MINT'

Five coinage mints have been
established in different sections
of the country, of which two.
located at New Orleans. La., and
Carson City, New, now operate only
as Assay Offices. The Mints now
engaged in coinage operations arc
located at Philadelphia, San Fran-
cisco and Denver, that at Phila-
delphia being the largest In addi-
tion to the Assay Offices Located at

New Orleans, La., and Carson City,
New, the Government maintains six
others, located at New York City,
Seattle. Wash.: Deadwood, s. D.;
Boise, Idaho: Salt Lake City, T'tah,
and Helena. Montana.

Th • headquarters of the Mint Ser-
vice are in the Treasury I >epartment,
Washington, I>. C. known as the
Bureau of the Mint. This consists
of the office of the I ►irector of the

•The subjeel of tin- assay of coins, bullion, etc.. and tin- minting of money
forms an interesting chapter in the Brat part of this i k. (Pages 309 t<> 320.)

DEPAKTMKNT < >F THE TKKASFRY

407

Mint, an assay laboratory for the
purpose of testing the weight and
fineness of the coins made at the
several mints, and a clerical force
which, under the Director of the
Mint, reviews the accounts of the
various institutions, prepares for
publication, quarterly, an estimate
of the value of the standard coins
of foreign countries for custom
house and other public purposes.
and works up the statistical data
for the annual report of the
Director on the operations of the
Mint Service for the fiscal year,
including also statistics of the pro-
duction of precious metals in the
United States and the world for the
calendar year.

ceipts of the precious metals to the
Mints to be coined. Much of the
metal is not suitable for immediate
coinage, and refineries are main-
tained at the Mints at San Fran-
cisco and Denver and the Assay
Office at New York City to purify
the metal. Such of it as may be
needed for coinage is then alloyed
with copper, the proportions being
nine parts of gold or silver to one
part of copper, making what is
known as 900 fine or "standard"
metal, which has been found most
suitable for coins, the pure gold or
silver being comparatively soft, and
subject to appreciable abrasion or
wear. Minor coins are manufactur-
ed from nickel and bronze, the

MONEY OF ALL KINDS IS TRANSPORTED IN HEAVILY GUARDED TRUCKS

The Mints and Assay Offices have
been established in localities suit-
able for the convenient acquisition
of gold and silver by the Government
for the purpose of coinage. Gold
and silver bullion is received and
paid for at its exact valuation (the
price of gold remaining stationary,
while that of silver fluctuates) and
the Assay Offices forward their re-

stocks of the necessary metals being
bought in the open market as re-
quired.

As the stock of gold in the coun-
try has accumulated far beyond the
needs for that metal as a circulating
medium, it has been found most con-
venient and economical, after filling
the yearly demands for new gold
coin, to melt the balance of this

408

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

precious metal into bars of uniform
and convenient size, to be stored
in the vaults of the mints and held
as a reserve against which gold cer-
tificates may be issued.

New coin usually gets into cir-
culation through the Disbursing Of-
fice of the Treasury Department and
hanking institutions in exchange for
the larger denominations of money.

The mints manufacture not only
all of the domestic coin, but also

the coinage for the Philippine Isl-
ands and. as their business permits,
such of the coinage of adjacent coun-
tries as it is found expedient and
practicable to handle.

At the Philadelphia Mint there is
maintained a complete engraving
and medal-making establishment,
where are manufactured all dies
used in the domestic and Philip-
pine coinage, and also dies and med-
als of a national character.

COMPTROLLER OP TIIK TREASIRY

The Comptroller of the Treasury,
under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, prescribes the
forms of keeping and rendering all
public accounts except those relat-
ing to postal revenues and the ex-
penditures therefrom. He is charged
with the duty of revising accounts
upon appeal from settlements made
by the auditors. Upon the applica-
tion of disbursing officers, the head
of any executive department, or
other independent establishment' not
under any of the executive depart-
ments, the Comptroller is required to
render bis advance decision upon
any question involving a payment
1o be made by them or under them,
which decision, when rendered, gov-
erns the auditor and the Comptrol-
ler in the settlement of the account
involving the payment inquired
about. He is required to approve,
disapprove, or modify all decisions
by auditors making an original con-
struction or modifying an existing
construction of statutes, and certify
his action to the auditor whose du-
ties are affected thereby. Under his
direction the several auditors super-
intend the recovery of all debts

finally certified by them, respect-
ively, to be due the United States,

except those arising under the Post
Office Department. He superin-
tends the preservation by the
auditors of all accounts which have
been finally adjusted by them, to-
gether with the vouchers and certifi-
cates relating to the same. He is

required, on his own motion, when
in the interests of the Government,
to revise any account settled by any
auditor. In any case where, in his
opinion, the interests of the Govern-
ment require, he may direct any of

PORTICO OF THE TREASURY

the auditors forthwith to audit and
settle any particular account pend-
ing before the said auditor for set-
tlement. It is his duty to counter-
sign all warrants authorized by law
to be signed by the Secretary of the
Treasury.

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

499

REGISTER OP THE TREASURY

The Register of the Treasury signs
all bonds of the United States, the
bonds of the District of Columbia,
the Philippine Islands, the city of
Manila, the city of Cebu, and the
Porto Rican gold loans, and keeps
records showing the daily outstand-
ing balances thereof. He certifies
to the Treasurer of the United
States, the Auditor for the Treas-
ury, and the Loans and Currency
Division, Secretary's Office, the in-

terest due on United States loans
at interest periods ; also gives an
administrative examination to paid
interest checks received from the
Treasurer, and transmits the same
to the Auditor for the Treasury. He
examines and records all paid inter-
est coupons and all other United
States securities redeemed, and keeps
records of the outstanding principal
and interest of the bonded indebted
ness of the Government.

$500,000 IN NOTES ON A TRUCK

BUREAU OF ENGRAVI

The Bureau of Engraving and
Printing designs, engraves, prints
and finishes all of the securities and
other similar work of the Govern-
ment, embracing United States
notes, bonds, and certificates, Na-
tional Bank notes. Federal Reserve
notes, internal-revenue, postage and
customs stamps, Treasury drafts

NG AND PRINTING*
and checks. disbursing officers'
checks, licenses, commissions, patent
and pension certificates, and por-
traits authorized by law of deceased
Members of Congress and other pub-
lic officers ; also all postage stamps
and all securities issued by the Bu-
reau of Insular Affairs to our insular
possessions.

*A special chapter by Director Ralph will be found in the first part of
this book and is filled with interesting facts and pictures. (See pages 299 to 307.)

r,m

OUB COUNTRY AND [TS RESOURCES

THE UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
By RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon-General

T

II E United
states Pub-
lie Health

S c i- v i c e w a s
created as the
United States

Marine Hospital
Service by the act
approved July 16,
17ux. It contin-
ued as the United
Slates Marine Hospital Service until
July 1. 1902, when Congress changed
the name to that of the Public Health
and Marine Hospital Service of the
United states. The act approved
August 14. 1912, further changed the
name of the Service to that of the
Public Health Service, and greatly
increased its powers and functions.
As originally created the I nit <1
States Marine Hospital Service had
for its function the medical and
surgical relief of the sick and in-
jured seamen of the merchant mar-
ine and the Navy. The organic act
placed the Marine Hospital Service
in the Treasury Department, where
it has continued to remain as a
bureau'. The organic act was amend-
ed by the acts of March 2. 1709.
May 5, 1802, February 2G. 1811, ami
July 2!>, Isto. As at present organ-
ized the Bureau of the Public Health
Service is situated at Washington,
D. C. and comprises seven divisions,
the operations of which are co-ordi-
nated and each under the immediate
supervision of the Surgeon General.
An Assistant Surgeon General is in
charge of each of these divisions, ex-
cepting the miscellaneous division.

Through the Division of Marine
Hospitals and Relief professional
care is taken of sick and disabled
seamen at twenty-two marine hospi-
tals and one hundred and twenty-
three other relief stations. The bene-
ficiaries include officers and crews of
registered, enrolled, or licensed ves-
sels of the United States and <>f the
Coast Guard and Lighthouse Ser-

vice; seamen employed on vessels
of the Mississippi River Commission,
and of the Engineer Corps of the
Army; keepers and surfmen of the
Coast Guard. A purveying depot for
the purchase' and issuance of sup-
plies is maintained at Washington.
Physical examinations of officers and
seamen and keepers and surfmen of
the ('oast Guard and the examina-
tions for the detection of color-
blindness in masters, mates, and
pilots are conducted through this di-
vision, and the medical evidence of
disability in claims for benefits
against the Coast Guard are re-
viewed.

Through the Division of Domestic
(Interstate) Quarantine is enforced
Section 3 of the act of February 15.
1^9.°>, relating to the prevention of
the spread of contagious or infec-
tious diseases from one State or
Territory into another. The control
of the interstate spread of disease
is effected by the Interstate Quar-
antine Regulations, compiled by this
division. These regulations prohibit
the carrying of persons afflicted with
contagious diseases by interstate
carriers and provide the conditions
under which certain other infected
persons may he transported. They
provide that the vehicles of these
carriers he maintained in a sani-
tary condition and that water fur-
nished thereon shall conform to
the bacteriological standard for
drinking water supplied to the
public by common carriers in in-
terstate traffic as adopted by the
Treasury Department on October 21.
1914. For the enforcement and ad-
ministration of these regulations the
country has been divided into twelve
Interstate Sanitary Districts, each
under the direction of this division.
Laboratories have been established
at central cities in these districts
and an officer of the Public Health
Service placed in each. The educa-
tion of the general public in hygiene

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

501

and sanitation is conducted by the
Domestic Quarantine Division by
means of lectures, the loan of stere-
opticon slides to physicians, welfare
workers, educators, etc., by exhibits,
such as at the Panama Pacific In-
ternational Exposition and on the
Government Safety First Train, and
by press items issued to about 8,000
newspapers. Sanitary and relief
work in Alaska, hospitals and sani-
tary work at international exposi-

ing thereto. He has control of fifty-
five Federal quarantine stations in
the United States, and others in the
Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico,
and supervises the medical officers
detailed in the offices of the Ameri-
can consular officers at foreign ports
to prevent the introduction of con-
tagious or infectious diseases into
the United States. Under section
17 of the act approved February 20,
1907, he has supervision over the

EXAMINING AN ALIEN AT ELLIS ISLAND BY MENTAL TESTS

tions. inspection of Government
buildings for sanitary defects, and
the important duty of the suppres-
sion of epidemics come within the
scope of this division.

Through the Division of Foreign
and Insular Quarantine and Immi-
gration the Surgeon General en-
forces the national quarantine laws
and prepares the regulations relat-

medical officers engaged in the physi-
cal and mental examinations of all
arriving aliens.

In the Division of Personnel and
Accounts are kept the records of the
officers and of the expenditures of
the appropriations.

The Division of Sanitary Reports
and Statistics collects and publishes
information regarding the prevalence

502

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

and geographic distribution of dis-
eases dangerous to the public health
in the United States and foreign
countries. Court decisions, laws,
regulations, and ordinances pertain-
ing to the public health are compiled,
digested and published. Its publi-
cations contain articles on subjects
relating to the public health. This
division issues the Public Health Re-
ports (weekly) and Supplements to,
and Reprints from, the Public
Health Reports.

The Division of Scientific Re-
search conducts the scientific investi-
gations of the service. Intensive
studies of diseases of man, including
hookworm diseases, malaria, pel-
lagra, trachoma, typhoid fever, and
tuberculosis, of school, mental, and
industrial hygiene, of rural sanita-
tion, of public health administration,
of water supplies and sewage, and
of coastal waters are carried on
from special headquarters in the
field in co-operation with State and
local health authorities. Technical
and purely laboratory studies are
conducted at the Hygienic Labora-
tory in Washington, at special field
laboratories, and at the leprosy in-
vestigation station in Hawaii. In-
formation thus obtained is dissem-
inated through publications, cor-
respondence, lectures, and confer-

ences with health authorities con-
cerning the results of field studies
in their jurisdictions. Through the
division the department enforces the
act of July 1, 1902, "to regulate the
sale of viruses, serums, etc." The
Surgeon General is required by law
to call an annual conference of
State and territorial health author-
ities, and special conferences may
also be called at any time. For ad-
vice in respect to scientific investi-
gations he may convene the advisory
board of the Hygienic Laboratory.

Through the Miscellaneous Di-
vision the various service publica-
tions are issued, including the an-
nual reports, public health reports,
supplements, and reprints, public
health bulletins of the Hygiene Lab-
oratory, and miscellaneous publica-
tions on health topics.

The commissioned corps of the
United States Public Health Service
on July 1, 191 G, consisted of the Sur-
geon General, 6 Assistant Surgeon
Generals, 1 Assistant Surgeon Gen-
eral at large, 13 senior surgeons,
72 surgeons. 37 passed assistant sur-
geons, and 70 assistant surgeons. In
addition there are scientific assist-
ants, consisting of acting assistant
surgeons, epidemiologists, internes
at marine hospitals, pharmacists,
etc.

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD*
By Captain Commandant K. P. Beiitholf

The Captain Commandant of
the Coast Guard is charged by
law with the administration of the
Coasl Guard, under the direction
of the Secretary of the Treasury.
Headquarters are located at the
Treasury Department. The act of
January 28, 1915, provided that the
Coast Guard be created in lieu of
the then existing Kevenue-Cutter
Service and the Life-Saving Service,
and to be composed of those two
organizations. It also provided that
it shall constitute a part of the mili-

tary forces of the United States,
and shall operate tinder the Treas-
ury Department in time of peace
and as a part of the Navy, subject
to the orders of the Secretary of the
Navy, in time of war. or when the
President shall so direct.

In general the duties of the Coast
Guard may be classified as follows :
Rendering assistance to vessels in
distress and saving life and prop-
erty; destruction or removal of
wrecks, derelicts, and other floating
dangers to navigation; extending

♦This subject is so Important thai it forms a chapter in the tirst part with
Lighthouses under the title "i "Government Protection <>t" Life and Property .it Sea."

/

DEPARTMENT OP THE TREASURY

503

ICEBERG SIGHTED BY THE "SENECA" ON JUNE 8, 1916, IN LATITUDE 42.35 NORTH,
LONGITUDE 49.36 WEST

medical aid to American vessels en-
gaged in deep-sea fisheries ; protec-
tion of the customs revenue; oper-
ating as a part of the Navy in time
of war or when the President shall
direct; enforcement of law ajid regu-
lations governing anchorage of ves-
sels in navigable waters ; enforce-
ment of law relating to quarantine
and neutrality ; suppression of mu-
tinies on merchant vessels ; enforce-
ment of navigation and other laws
governing merchant vessels and mo-
tor boats ; enforcement of law to
provide for safety of life on navi-
gable waters during regattas and
marine parades ; protection of game
and the seal and other fisheries in
Alaska, etc. ; enforcement of sponge-
fishing laws.

To assist the Captain Command-
ant in conducting the business of
his office there are established the
following divisions:

Division of Operations — Having
cognizance of matters relating to the
personnel and operations of the
service.

Division of Material — Having cog-
nizance of matters relating to sup-
plies, outfits, equipment, accounts,
and the files.

Division of Construction and Re-
pair— Having cognizance of matters

relating to the construction of and
repairs to the hulls of vessels and
boats, stations, wharves, and all
other property.

Division of Engineering — Having
cognizance of matters relating to
the construction of and repairs to
the motive power of vessels and
boats and the machinery of all other
property.

Division of Inspection — Having
cognizance of matters relating to the
inspection of vessels, stations, boats,
and all other property.

Under the direction of the Cap-
tain Commandant statistics are pre-
pared regarding the loss of life and
property on account of wrecked ves-
sels in American waters. He is also
required to acquaint himself, as far
as practicable, with all means em-
ployed in foreign countries which
may seem to affect advantageously
the interests of the Coast Guard,
and to cause to be properly investi-
gated all plans, devices, and inven-
tions for the improvement of life-
saving apparatus for use at the sta-
tions which may appear to be meri-
torious and available. This is ac-
complished through the medium of
the Roard on Life-Saving Appliances,
which meets annually at Boston,
Mass., for that purpose.

OFFICE OF THE SUPERVISING ARCHITECT

Under the direction of the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, the Supervis-
ing Architect acquires the sites and
designs, constructs, equips, supplies,

operates and repairs United States
public buildings generally, marine
hospitals and quarantine stations,
and wharves, bridges, roads, sewers,

504

OUR COUNTRY and its RESOURCES

etc., in connection therewith. When
specially authorized by law plans
are obtained by competition among
private architects. The Super
vising Architect's Office was organ-
ized in IS53. T'ntil 1861 an Army
Engineer had charge of construc-
tion \\<>rk: since then Supervising
Architect in sole charge. Present
organization: Supervising Architect,
the Executive Officer, directing the
administrative phases of the work
and in charge of the Accounts,
.Maintenance. Repairs, and Files
and Records Divisions, and Cus-
todians' and Janitors' field force;
the Technical Officer, directing the
architectural and engineering work
and in charge of the Drafting,
Structural. Mechanical and Elec-
trical Engineering, and Computing
Divisions, Public Information Room,
Duplicating and Photograph Gal-
leries, and the Construction held
i" »rce. Board of Award, composed
of Supervising Architect. Executive
Officer, Technical Officer and Super-
intendent of Drafting Division,
passes upon and recommends all im-
portant expenditures (except for
land i.

Building work usually done by
contract. Furniture and supplies
generally obtained from manufac
liners upon blanket annual con
tracts. Awards are to lowest best
bidder, after advertising and public
opening of bids. Supervising Archi-
tect approves materials and per-
formance. Materials are tested by

the National Bureau of Standards.
Department orders land purchases
and all expenditures from $500 up-
wards. Funds disbursed from
Washington mainly. Each project
supervised by resident superintend-
ent : each finished building in charge
of custodian. Operating force and
field force overseen by traveling
inspectors.

In 1853 the Supervising Architect
had charge of 15 completed build-
bags and 28 to be constructed. In
1916 there are 1,073 completed pub-
lic buildings, branch mints, assay
offices, marine hospitals and quaran-
tine stations: 117 separate projects
under construction. 301 projects au-
thorized, but not yet under con-
struction: and 1G4 sites only (ac-
quired or to be acquired) for which
no buildings have yet been author-
ized.

The present headquarters force
(quartered on the top floor of the
Treasury Building) numbers 246.
Field forces: Construction. 124;
Operating force, about 5,000. The
whole force of architects, engineers,
draftsmen, computers, superintend-
ents, inspectors, lawyers, account-
ants, stenographers, clerks, mechan-
ics, janitors, etc.. is within the
classified civil service.

For the fiscal year ending June
30, 1!>1.">. the expenditures were:

sites $1,288,597.04

Construction 11 A't r.120.40

Repairs, etc 1,347,303.67

Supplies and Operation... 5,951,546.99

UNITED STATES BUREAU OP WAR RISK INSURANCE
By Director Wh.uui ('. De Lanoy

The Bureau of War Risk Insur-
ance was created by Act of Con-
gress on September 2nd, 1914, to
cover American vessels and their
cargoes against the risks of war.

It was to expire September 2nd,
1916, but on August 11th, 1916, was
extended for a period of one year.

During the two years of this
Bureau's existence it has covered
war risk insurance on many vessels
and cargoes where the market was

small and without the assistance
which was granted by the Bureau
many of these vessels could not
have sailed.

From September 2nd, 191 1. to
September 2nd, L916, the Bureau
Issued 1,590 policies Insuring ships
and cargoes Of a value of $145,831,-
602, for which the Government re
ceived in premiums $3,000,926.83,
with a known loss to date of only
$771,329.57, reduced through salvage

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

505

bv the sum of $5S.S11.42, reducing
the net loss to $712,518.15.

The expenses attending the con-
duct of the Bureau up to August
31st, 1916, a period of twenty-three

months, have been $34,882.47. The
Bureau has a list of ports to which
the rates are not made public, but
may be had upon application to the
Bureau.

AUDITOR FOR THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT

The Auditor for the Treasury Depart-
ment receives and settles all accounts of
the Department of the Treasury, includ-
ing all accounts relating to the customs
service, the public debt, internal rev-

enue, Treasurer and assistant treasurers,
mints and assay offices, Bureau of En-
graving and Printing. Coast Guard, Pub-
lic Health Service. Farm Loan Board,
public buildings and Secret Service.

AUDITOR FOR THE WAR DEPARTMENT

The Auditor for the War Department
receives and settles all accounts of the
Department of War. including those re-
lating to the military establishment,
armories and arsenals, national ceme-

AUDITOR FOR THE I

All claims and accounts arising under
the Department of the Interior, which
includes those having relation to the
protection, survey and sale of public
and Indian lands, the reclamation of
arid public and Indian lands. Army and
Navy pensions, Indian affairs, Geological
Survey, Bureau of Education, Bureau

teries, fortifications, public buildings and
grounds under the supervision of the
Chief of Engineers, rivers and harbors,
the Military Academy and the Panama

Canal.

NTERIOR DEPARTMENT

of Mines, Patent Office, Capitol Build-
ing and Grounds. Freedmen's Hospital,
Howard University, Columbia Institu-
tion for the Deaf, Government Hospital
for the Insane, Hot Springs Reserva-
tion, the Yosemite and other national
parks, and the construction of railroads
in Alaska, are settled in this office.

AUDITOR FOR THE NAVY DEPARTMENT

The Auditor for the Navy Department accounts relating to the Naval Estab-

receives and settles all accounts of the lishment, Marine Corps and the Naval

Department of the Navy, including all Academy.

AUDITOR FOR THE STATE AND OTHER DEPARTMENTS

The Auditor for the State and Other
Departments receives and settles the ac-
counts of the White House ; the two
Houses of Congress ; the Supreme Court ;
the Departments of State, including the
expenses of the Diplomatic and Consular
Service ; Justice, covering expenses of
United States courts ; Agriculture, in-
cluding its field service ; Commerce ;
Labor ; also the accounts of the follow-

AUDITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT

ing governmental establishments : Gov-
ernment Printing Office ; Interstate Com-
merce Commission ; Smithsonian Institu-
tion and National Museum ; District of
Columbia : Civil Service Commission :
the Federal Reserve Board ; the Federal
Trade Commission ; and all boards, com-
missions and establishments of the Gov-
ernment not under the administration
of any executive department.

The Auditor for the Post Office De-
partment receives and examines all ac-
counts of the office of the Postmaster
General and of all bureaus and offices
under his direction : all postal and
money order accounts of postmasters
and foreign administrations ; all ac-
counts relating to the transportation of
mails, and to all other business within
the jurisdiction of the Post Office De-
partment ; and certifies the balances
arising thereon to the Postmaster Gen-
eral for accounts of the postal revenue
and expenditures therefrom, and to the
Secretary of the Treasury for other ac-
counts. He also receives and examines
reports and accounts of postmasters
operating postal savings banks, and ac-
counts for expenditures from the appro-
priation for continuing the establish-
ment, maintenance, and extension of the
postal savings depositories. lie registers,
charges and countersigns the warrants

upon the Treasury issued in liquidation
of indebtedness ; superintends the col-
lecting of debts due the United States
for the service of the Post Office Depart-
ment and all penalties imposed ; directs
suits and all legal proceedings in civil
actions : and takes all legal measures
to enforce the payment of money due
the United States for the service of the
Post Office Department, and for this
purpose has direct official relations with
the Solicitor of the Treasury, Depart-
ment of Justice. He receives and ac-
cepts, with the written consent of the
Postmaster General, offers of compro-
mise under sections 295 and 409. Revised
Statutes. He is required to submit to
the Secretary of the Treasury quarterly
statements of postal receipts and ex-
penditures, and to report to the Post-
master General the financial condition
of the Post Office Department at the
dose (if each fiscal year.

CHAPTER VII.
DEPARTMENT OF WAR*

SECRETARY OF WAR

TI1E Secretary of War is head
of the War Department, and
performs such duties as are re-
quired of him by law or may be
enjoined upon him by the President
concerning the military service.

He is charged by law with the
supervision of all estimates of ap-
propriations for the expenses of the
department, including the military
establishment : of all purchases of
Army supplies; of all expenditures
for the support, transportation, and
maintenance of the Army, and of
such expenditures of a civil nature
as may be placed by Congress under
his direction.

He also has supervision of the
T'nited States Military Academy at
West Point and of military educa-
tion in the Army, of the Board of

Ordnance and Fortification, of the
various battlefield commissions, and
of the publication of Official Records
of the War of the Rebellion.

He has charge of all matters re-
lating to national defense and sea-
coast fortifications, Army ordnance,
river and harbor improvements, the
prevention of obstruction to naviga-
tion, and the establishment of har-
bor lines: and all plans and loca-
tions of bridges authorized by
Congress to lie constructed over the
navigable waters of the United
States require his approval. He
also has charge of the establishment
or abandonment of military posts,
and of all matters relating to
leases, revocable licenses, anil all
other privileges upon lands under
the control of the War Department.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OP WAR

To the Assistant Secretary of War
is assigned the general direction and
supervision of all matters relating
to rivers and harbors; bridges over
navigable waters of the United

State-: leases, revocable licenses,
and all other privileges upon lands
under the control of the War I >e-
partment; inspections relating to
the military establishment; recruit-
ing service, discharges, commutation
of rations, courts -martial, and other
questions relating to enlisted men,
including clemency cases and mat-
ter- relating to prisoners at military
prisons and penitentiaries.

lie also has charge of routine
matters relating to the militia; the
promotion of rifle practice; the su-
pervision of miscellaneous claims
and accounts; matters relating to
national cemeteries, boards of sur-
vey, open-ma rkel purchases, and
medals of honor.

The Assistant Secretary of War is
also vested with authority to decide
all cases which do not involve ques-
tions of policy, the establishment or
reversal of precedents, or matters
of special or extraordinary im-
portance which may be assigned to
him.

*A Bpecial chapter on the Army begins on page 281.

Copyright by Muun & Co., Inc.

DEPARTMENT OF WAR

507

ASSISTANT AND CHIEF CLERK

The Assistant and Chief Clerk of
the War Department is the head of
the Office of the Secretary of War,
and as such has charge of the rec-
ords and files, and supervision of
the receipt, distribution, and trans-
mission of the official mail and cor-
respondence of that office, and is
charged with the administrative
action required by law to be taken
in connection with the settlement of
disbursing officers' accounts that do
not relate to the different staff corps

of the Army. He has general super-
vision of matters relating to civi-
lian employees in and under the
War Department; printing and
binding and advertising for the
War Department and the Army:
appropriations for contingent ex-
penses, stationery, rent of build-
ings; and the department's tele-
graph and telephone service; and
performs such other duties as may
be required by the Secretary of
War.

THE GENERAL STAFF CORPS, U. S. ARMY

The duties of the General Staff
Corps, as stated in the organic act
of Congress establishing it, are:

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF STAFF

The Chief of Staff is the military
advisor of the Secretary of War.
The Office of the Chief of Staff, for
the purpose of carrying into effect
the supervising, co-ordinating and
informing powers conferred upon
him by law, constitutes a supervis-
ing military bureau of the War
Department.

The Chief of Staff issues, through
the Adjutant General of the Army,
all orders and instructions of the
Secretary of War affecting the Regu-
lar Army and the National Guard.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL STAFF
CORPS

The collation and discussion of
all obtainable data relating to strate-
gical, tactical and logistic features
of military operations at home and
abroad ; the formulation of com-
plete working plans for passing
quickly from a state of peace to a
state of war, including the mobiliza-
tion of all the available military
forces of the United States ; also
the preparation and keeping up to
date of detailed plans of defensive
and offensive operations against
each country with which the United
States might become involved in
war.

The collection, classification and
distribution of military information
concerning («) the strength, organ-
ization, personnel, armament and
equipment of our own and foreign
armies; (&) natural and artificial
routes of communication (rivers,
canals, roads and railroads) ; (c)
the manufacture of arms, ammuni-
tion and other war materials; (d)
supplies of food, horses, mules, pack
and draft animals; (e) road
vehicles, including motors and trac-
tors.

The supervision of the work of
military attaches and observers ; the
conduct of correspondence with
them ; inspection of their accounts
and recommendations as to their de-
tail and relief ; the exchange of mili-
tary information with foreign war
offices through their representatives
in Washington ; the preparation of
instructions for the guidance of offi-
cers of the Army serving or travel-
ing abroad or acting as military
attaches or observers, and the colla-
tion of information contained in
their reports.

The collation, preservation, ar-
rangement, filing and indexing of
maps, sketches and plans, American
and foreign ; and the general super-
vision over the compilation of a pro-
gressive military map of the United
States and its possessions.

The collection, preparation and
distribution to the military service

108

(.1 K C01 NTWY AND ITS RKSiW fcCES

of military information concerning
our own and foreigD countries-.

The preparation, from « »Hi<-i nl rec-
ords, of analytical and critical his-
tories of important campaigns for
distribution to the Army.

The supervision and co-ordination
of military education; training;
plans for Held maneuvers.

The study of the needs of the
military service, and recommending
Changes therein; consideration of
matters pertaining to armament,
equipment and clothing; location,
design and construction of posts.

The preparation of schemes of
legislation for the increase of mili-

tary preparedness, when directed by
higher authority, for submission to
Congress, and such other schemes
of legislation for the improvement
of the military service as may be
directed.

The maintenance at the War Col-
lege of a military library for the
use of the War Department and the
Army at large.

The conduct of a photographic
laboratory for the reproduction of
maps, sketches, photographs and
illustrations, lantern slides and such
other photographic work as may lie
required for the War Department
and the Army at large.

THE ARMY WAR COLLEGE

The idea of a War College for
the United States Army was firsl
suggested by the Honorable Elihu
Root, then Secretary of War. in his
annual report for 1899. In the
words of its founder, its purpose is

"nut to promote war, but to preserve
peace by intelligent ami adequate prep-
aration to repel invasion. It is a growth
a ii. I not a new departure. Only an insti-
tution permanent, hut always changing

feci iveness

entitled."

to which that judgment is

The functions thus described are
really those of a General Staff and
it is worthy of note that the Army
War College as first established by
War Department order in 1901 per-
formed the duties of such a body
until the General Staff was actually
created by Act of Congress in 19Uo.

WAR COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

in its individual < -•■■ uts, in which, by

conference and discussion, a consensus
of matured opinion can be reached, can
perpetuate the result of individual effort,
secure continuity of military pcli \ ind
command for Its authorized conclusive
expressions nf military judgment, upon
military questions, tin- respect and ef-

After thai date the War College as-
sumed its true function of training
selected officers for staff duty and
higher command in war. the control-
ling idea being that each class shall
be a useful adjunct to the General

DEPARTMENT OF WAR

509

Staff in its study of the military
problems affecting our country.

In order to accomplish this result,
the year's work is made to include
studies in the tactical and strate-
gical handling of large bodies of
troops, in the general control of the
auxiliary services, and in offensive
and defensive questions of military,
as dependent upon national, policy.
The course opens with map prob-
lems and map maneuvers of a prac-
tical nature, representing, actual
phases in military operations that
might have to be undertaken by our
forces in time of war. These studies
are confirmed on the ground, when-
ever practicable, by terrain, tactical
and staff rides. These problems are
only sufficient to insure that ideas
shall be uniform and that opera-
tions shall be conducted in accord-
ance with an accepted doctrine of
war. The remainder of the course
includes a series of original investi-
gations, studies of war plans, contri-
butions to military monographs,
studies in military geography, in
methods of obtaining military in-
formation, and in military historical
research. The final result is that
each class contributes something of
permanent value for future refer-
ence. This is possible only because
the officers detailed to take the
course are men of experience,
preferably graduates of the Staff
College at Fort Leavenworth, and
well versed in the theory of their
profession. The President of the
Army War College is a general offi-
cer detailed to the General Staff as
assistant to the Chief of Staff, and
the faculty is selected from the grad-
uates of the Army War College.

At first the sessions of the Army
War College were held in a private
residence rented for the purpose in
Washington and this continued until
1907 when the present magnificent
building on the site of the old Wash-
ington Barracks was first occupied.
It provides quarters not only for the
War College but also for the bulk
of the General Staff on duty in
Washington. The building, which

cost about $700,000, is of modern
construction and material but is
purely classic in design. It is
massive, well proportioned and im-
pressive. In size the building is 300
feet long and 125 feet deep. The
materials used in the construction
of the exterior are red Pompeian
pressed brick, laid in Flemish bond,
with ornamentation of limestone and
roof of dark slate.

Photo G. V. Buck
CONFERENCE ROOM, WAR COLLEGE

In the center of the front facade
is the main entrance pavilion, con-
sisting of a pedimental gable with
massive piers on either side and
beautifully proportioned Ionic col-
umns in the center. The design of
this entrance pavilion is duplicated
at either end of the building. The
portions of the structure flanking
the pavilion are in the pilaster style
of treatment. Great dignity is lent
to the exterior by the approaches.
Low granite steps lead to a wide
platform paved with red brick laid
in ornamental patterns. The build-
ing is one of the most artistic edi-
fices in the country, and is con-
sidered to rival the Library of Con-
gress in its technical perfection.

The interior is perfectly adapted
to its purposes. Passing under the
entrance pavilion, the visitor arrives
in the large rotunda, with its four
columns supporting an octagonal
dome. Immediately beyond this i s
the main lecture room for the War

.10

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

College, with a seating capacity of
250; to the right of the rotunda,
in the center of the building, is the
library, and t<> the left is the map

r ii. both extending to the roof.

On the long sides of the building are
the various lecture and conference

shops, store rooms and vaults are
in the basement. The map room
contains a magnificenl collection of
the military maps <>f all nations ar-
ranged for ready reference. The
library contains more than 100,000
volumes, and its method of classi-

fc/* J^l k '

*i 1

— ~* ■» §k i a- 1 1 j£4i mJmmfim

Wt ■

^r ^r

.'jtBB. ■ Hmv1' 1

^s^S^^H

Photo Harris & Ewing

ARMY WAR GAME BEING PLAYED AT THE WAR COLLEGE BY DISTINGUISHED

ARMY OFFICERS

rooms, record rooms, work rooms
and offices. The galleries of the
library and map room are set aside
for map drafting and mounting. The
photographic department, complete
for every kind of work, the work-

tication and card indexing, devel-
oped by the present Assistant
Librarian, is considered to be the
mosl remarkable and complete sys-
tem of its kind for ready reference
in this country.

MILITIA BUREAU

The .Militia Bureau is vested with

all administrative duties Involving
the organization, armament. Instruc-
tion, equipment, discipline, training,
inspection, and payment of the Na-
tional < ruard : the conducl of camps
of instruction of the National < ruard,
and the administrative duties con
nected with the preparation of the
National Guard for participation in

field exercises and maneuvers of the
Regular Army; the mobilization of
the National Guard in time of peace ;
and all matters not herein generi-
cally enumerated which do not under
existing laws, regulations, orders, or
practice come within the jurisdic-
tion of the General Stafl or any
division or bureau of the War I >e
partment

DEPARTMENT OF WAR

511

MILITARY BUREAUS

THE CHIEFS OF THE MILITARY BUREAUS OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT ARE

OFFICERS OF THE REGULAR ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES AND A

PART OF THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT

OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT GENERAL

The Adjutant General is charged
with the duty of recording, authenti-
cating, and communicating to troops
and individuals in the military serv-
ice all orders, instructions, and regu-
lations issued by the Secretary of
War through the Chief of Staff, or
otherwise ; of preparing and dis-
tributing commissions ; of compiling
and issuing the Army Register and
the Army List and Directory ; of
consolidating the general returns of
the Army; of arranging and pre-
serving the reports of officers of the
Army detailed to visit encampments
of militia ; of compiling and main-
taining a list showing the names of
officers of the Army on detached
service ; of managing the recruiting
service, and of conducting corre-
spondence concerning the military
service generally, including such as
pertains to military training camps,
rifle practice, the Officers' Reserve
Corps, the Reserve Officers' Train-
ing Corps and the Enlisted Reserve
Corps. He is also vested with the
government and control, under the
direction of the Secretary of War.
of the United States Disciplinary
Barracks and its branches, and all
offenders sent thereto for confine-
ment and detention ; and is charged
with the duty of issuing and record-
ing orders from the War Depart-
ment remitting or mitigating sen-
tences of general prisoners, or honor-
ably restoring them to duty. The
Adjutant General is vested by law
with the charge, under the Secretary
of War, "of the military and hospi-
tal records of the volunteer armies
and the pension and other business
of the War Department connected
therewith ;" of publishing War De-
partment regulations, manuals and
miscellaneous documents pertaining
to the military service and dis-
tributing to the Army such publica-

tions, as well as those publications
of a private nature as are useful in
the military establishment ; of pub-
lishing and distributing the Official
Records of the Union and Confed-
erate Armies ; of obtaining, compil-
ing and keeping continually up to
date all obtainable information as to
the names, ages, addresses, occupa-
tions and qualifications for appoint-
ment as commissioned officers of the
Army, in time of war or other emer-
gency, of men of suitable ages who,
by reason of having received mili-
tary training in civilian educational
institutions or elsewhere, may be re-
garded as qualified and available for
appointment as such commissioned
officers ; and of issuing certificates
of enlistment in the Enlisted Reserve
Corps. He also has charge of the
historical records and business of
the permanent military establish-
ment, and all pension, pay, bounty,
and other business pertaining to or
based upon the military or medical
histories of former officers or en-
listed men, including the considera-
tion of applications for the Congres-
sional Medal of Honor ; for the bene-
fits of the act of Congress approved
April 27, 1916, establishing the Army
and Navy Medal of Honor Roll ;
for certificates of military service,
certificates of merit, and certifi-
cates authorizing the purchase of
campaign badges, and for removal
of charges of desertion and the issue
of discharge certificates to such sol-
diers finally charged with desertion
as are entitled to relief under the
terms of existing law. The archives
of the Adjutant General's office in-
clude all military records of the
Revolutionary War in the possession
of the General Government ; the rec-
ords of all organizations, officers,
and enlisted men that have been in
the military service of the United

-.11'

OUR COI XTKY AND its RESOURCES

States since the Revolutionary War,
including those pertaining to the vol-
unteer forces and the National
Guard while in the active service of
the United states ; the records of the
movements ami operations of troops :
the medical and bospital records of
the Army; all reports of physical
examination of recruits and identi-

fication records; the records of the
Provost Marshal General's Bureau;
the records of the Bureau of Refu-
gees, Freedmen, ami Abandoned

Land-: and a considerable collection
of Confederate records, including
those pertaining to the Legislative,

executive, and judicial branches of
the Confederate Government.

OFFICE OF THF [NSPECTOB GENERAL

The duty of the officers of the
Inspector General's Department is

to inspect the Army in all its de-
tails, and the scope of their
inquiry includes every branch of
military affairs. They exercise a
comprehensive and general observa-
tion within the commands to which
they are assigned over all that per-
tains to the efficiency of the Army,
the condition and state of supplies
of all kinds, of arms and equipments,
of the expenditure of public prop-
erty and money, and the condition

of accounts of all disbursing officers
of every branch of the service; of
the conduct, discipline and efficiency
of officers and troops, and report
with strict impartiality in regard to
all irregularities that may be dis-
covered, with a view to their being
remedied. They also inspect the
Soldiers' Home, the ten branches of
the National Home for Disabled Vol-
unteer Soldiers, the Army transports
ami National Guard; and make in-
vestigations ordered by the Secretary
of War or Department Commanders.

OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE OEXERAL

The Judge Advocate General is
directed by law to "receive, review.

and cause to be recorded the pro-
ceedings of all courts-martial, courts

of inquiry, and military commis-
sions." He reports upon applica-
tions for clemency, parole, pardon,
restoration to the colors, remission
of citizenship rights, and re-enlist-
ment of general prisoners and dis-
honorably discharged soldiers. He
also furnishes the Secretary of War
information and advice relating to
lands under the control of the War
Department, as well as reports and
opinions upon legal questions arising

under the laws, regulations, and cus-
toms pertaining to the Army, and
upon miscellaneous questions aris-
ing under civil law; examines and
prepares legal papers relating to the
construction of bridges, dams, or
other work over or in navigable
waters; drafts bonds and examines
those given to the Tinted States by
disbursing officers, colleges, rifle
Clubs, and others; examines, revises,
and drafts charges against officers
and soldiers; and drafts and exam-
ines deeds, contracts, licenses, and
other legal papers relating to mat-
ters under the War Department

OFFICE OF THE QUARTERMASTER GENERAL

Under the provisions of the Re-
vised Statutes. Statutes at Large,
current appropriation ads. and
Army Regulations, the Quartermas-
ter General is charged with the fol-
lowing duties :

(a i Pay of officers and enlisted
men of the Army, including Staff
Corps and Staff Departments, Porto

Rico Regimenl of Infantry and Phil-
ippine Scouts; additional pay for
length of service and foreign serv-
ice; pay of retired officers and re-
tired enlisted men: pay of Regular
Army Reserve, Officers' Reserve

Corps, Enlisted .Men's Reserve;
mileage; commutation of quarters
for commissioned officers and vet-

DEPARTMENT OF WAR

513

erinarians; pay of nurses, hospital
matrons, veterinarians of Cavalry
and Field Artillery and Quartermas-
ter Corps, contract surgeons and re-
tired pay clerks ; expenses of courts
martial, courts of inquiry, military
commissions, and compensation of
reporters and witnesses attending
same ; travel allowance to enlisted
men on discharge; value of clothing
undrawn to enlisted men on dis-
charge; interest on soldiers' depos-
its; receiving and paying deposits
of enlisted men ; gratuity pay.

(6) Purchase of subsistence sup-
plies for issue as rations to troops,
civil employees, hospital matrons,
and others entitled thereto: sub-
sistence of masters, officers, crews,
and employees of the Army Trans-
port Service; hot coffee for troops
traveling when supplied with cooked
or travel rations : meals for recruit-
ing parties and applicants for en-
listment while held under observa-
tion ; for sales to officers ; commuta-
tion of rations to the Cadets of the
United States Military Academy:
commutation in lieu of rations to
enlisted men on furlough, enlisted
men and male and female nurses
when stationed at places where ra-
tions in kind can not be economically
issued and when traveling on de-
tached duty, enlisted men selected
to contest for places or prizes in
Army rifle competitions while travel-
ing to and from place of contest,
male and female nurses on leaves of
absence, applicants for enlistment,
and general prisoners while travel-
ing under orders ; commutation in
lien of regular established ration for
members of Nurse Corps (female)
while on duty in hospitals, and for
enlisted men, applicants for enlist-
ment while held under observation,
and general prisoners sick in hospi-
tals ; prizes for enlisted men gradu-
ates of schools for bakers and cooks ;
authorized issues of soap, candles,
matches, and salt and vinegar for
animals ; towels for offices ; author-
ized issues of toilet paper, toilet ar-
ticles, barbers' and tailors' materials
for use of general prisoners confined

at military posts without pay or
allowances, and applicants for en-
listment while held under observa-
tion ; issue of toilet kits to recruits ;
for other necessary expenses inci-
dent to the purchase, testing, care,
preservation, issue, sale, and' ac-
counting for sub. istence supplies ;
for purchase, issue, repair and main-
tenance of stoves, ranges, field
ranges, field bakeries, and appliances
for cooking and serving food to
troops in garrison and in the field;
tableware, kitchen utensils, and
mess furniture, stationery for the
Army, including blank books, blank
forms, and the necessary printing;
purchase, issue, repair and main-
tenance of prescribed field equipment
and supplies for garrison use; pur-
chase and issue of ice for use of
troops, offices, and preservation of
stores ; providing cold storage ; con-
struction and maintenance of ice
plants, laundries, post bakeries, and
power plants for lighting, and for
supply of water; purchase and issue
of water bags, sterilizers and neces-
sary chemicals for purifying water;
purchase and issue of fuel for heat-
ing barracks, quarters and other
public buildings and for cooking
food ; fuel for operation of modern
batteries, pumping and other power
plants; fuel for operation of trans-
ports and harbor vessels of the
Army ; furnishing light, including
mineral oil ; necessary furniture,
text books, paper, and other equip-
ment for post schools and libraries;
subscriptions for newspapers and
periodicals for the enlisted men;
forage for the animals of the Army,
including bedding ; purchase and
issue of typewriters, adding ma-
chines, addressographs and other
devices for use of the Army; seeds
and implements for raisins forage
at remount depots ; hire of all em-
ployees pertaining to the Quarter-
master Corps ; extra duty pay for
members of disciplinary barracks
guard, to enlisted men on duty as
school teachers and stewards and
cooks at recruit depots ; purchase
and issue of office furniture and

514

OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

office equipment ; payment of re-
wards for apprehension <>t' deserters
mid escaped military prisoners; do-
oations of $5 t<> dishonorably dis-
charged prisoners; purchase and
issue of blacksmiths' tools and
materials, horse and mule shoes,
horseshoe nails, wheelwrights' and
other tools: purchase and supply of
flagstaffs, surveying instruments, re-
frigerators, wall lockers, trunk lock-
ers, window shades, screen doors and
window screens: purchase and issue
of animals for the Army; equipment
and maintenance of remount depots;
purchase, issue, and repair, main-
tenance and operation of wagons,
motor vehicles, and other vehicles :
purchase, manufacture, and issue of
harness and pack equipment; pur-
chase and manufacture of uniforms
for the Army; purchase and issue
of other articles of clothing; pur-
chase and manufacture of tentage
and other articles of equipage; pur-
chase and issue of technical books;
transportation of troops and impedi-
menta : transportation of civilian
employees, of baggage of officers,
troops and employees; transporta-
tion of animals for the Army ; trans-
portation of Army supplies; trans-

portation of funds: payment of
wharfage, tolls, and ferriage; con-
struction, operation, and mainte-
nance of harbor vessels for the Mo-
bile Army and for the Coast Artil-
lery, tacluding mine planters and
cable ships; operation and mainte-
nance of Army Transport Service on
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and
the Gulf of .Mexico: charter of ves-
sels for transport purposes: lease of
buildings for quarters, storehouses
and offices; lease of grounds for
camp sites; hire of Lodgings for re-
cruits; care and protection of mili-
tary reservations; care and main-
tenance of post cemeteries and na-
tional cemeteries; care and improve-
ment of grounds at military posts;
and attends to all matters connected
with the military service which are
not expressly assigned to some other
bureau of the War Department

(c) Constructs and repairs quar-
ters for officers, barracks for en-
listed men. storehouses for Storage
of supplies, administration build-
ings, offices, power plants, roads,
walks. wharves. water systems,
sewer systems and drainage sys-
tems; acquires land for military
purposes.

OFFICE OF THE

The Surgeon General is the ad-
viser of the War Department upon
all medical and sanitary affairs of
the Army. He has administrative
control of the Medical Department;
the disbursement of its appropria-
tions; the designation of the stations
of medical officers, dental officers and
veterinary surgeons, and the issuing
of all orders and instructions relat-

STJRGEON GENERAL

ing to their professional duties; the
recruitment, instruction and control
of the Hospital Corps and of the Army
Nurse ( !orps. He directs the selection,
purchase and distribution of medical
Supplies. The Army .Medical Mu-
seum, the library of the Surgeon
General's Office, medical supply
depots, and the general hospitals
are under his direct control.

OFFICE of THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS

The Chief of Engineers commands
the Corps of Engineers, which is
charged with reconnoitering and

surveying for military purposes, in-
cluding the laying out of camps,

selection of site-, and formation of
plans and estimates for military de-
fenses, construction and repair 01
fortifications and their accessories,

the installation of electric-power

plants and electric-power cable con-
nected with seacoast batteries, and
furnishing the necessary electrical
supplies connected therewith: plan-
ning and superintending of defensive
or offensive works of troops in the
Held : examination of routes of com-
munications for supplies and for

Department of war

515

military movement!? ; construction
and repair of military roads, rail-
roads and bridges ; and military
demolitions. In time of war, within
the theater of operations, it has
charge of the location, design, and
construction of wharves, piers, land-
ings, storehouses, hospitals, and
other structures of general interest ;
and of the construction, main-
tenance, and repair of roads, fer-
ries, bridges, and incidental struc-
tures ; and of the construction,
maintenance, and operation of rail-
roads under military control, includ-
ing the construction and operation
of armored trains.

The Corps of Engineers is also
charged with the improvement of
rivers and harbors ; with matters
arising under the laws for the pro-
tection and preservation of navigable
waters, including the establishment
of harbor lines, anchorage grounds,
and rules and regulations therefor ;
rules and regulations for canals
owned, operated, or maintained by
the United States, for any public
navigable channel improved under
authority of Congress, and for the

navigation of streams on which the
floating of loose timber and sack
rafts is the principal method of
navigation ; also with the issuance
of permits for the construction,
alteration, maintenance, and opera-
tion of bridges, the granting of per-
mits for structures or work in navi-
gable waters, and the removal of
wrecks and other obstructions to
navigation ; with questions pertain-
ing to the supervision of the harbor
of New York and adjacent waters
to prevent obstructive and injurious
deposits ; with surveying and chart-
ing the Great Lakes, the natural
navigable waters of the New York
State canals, Lake Champlain, the
Lake of the Woods, and other
boundary and connecting waters be-
tween said lake and Lake Superior;
with the preservation of Niagara
Falls ; with public buildings and
grounds in the District of Columbia ;
with the water supply of Washing-
ton, D. C. ; with the construction of
monuments and memorials ; and
with the construction of roads and
bridges in the Yellowstone and Cra-
ter Lake National Parks.

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF ORDNANCE

The Chief of Ordnance commands
the Ordnance Department, the du-
ties of which consist in providing,
preserving, distributing, and ac-
counting for every description of
artillery, small arms, and all the
munitions of war which may be re-
quired for the fortresses of the
country, the armies in the field, and
for the whole body of the militia
of the Union. In these duties are
comprised that of determining the

general principles of construction
and of prescribing in detail the
models and forms of all military
weapons employed in war. They
comprise also the duty of prescrib-
ing the regulations for the proof and
inspection of all these weapons, for
maintaining uniformity and econ-
omy in their fabrication, for insur-
ing their good quality, and for their
preservation and distribution at all
times.

BOARD OF ORDNANCE AND FORTIFICATION

The Board of Ordnance and Forti-
fication was created in 1888 to assist
in the development of war material,
especially that pertaining to ord-
nance and fortification. The board
has an appropriation from Congress
for carrying out the development
and test of inventions for which no
special provision is otherwise made.

and considers a very large number
of inventions submitted by civilians,
as well as persons in the military
service, each year. A large amount
of very important development work
has been carried on under the board
and the board is glad to have sub-
mitted to it any inventions relating
to military subjects.

516

01 i: C01 \tj;\ and ITS RESOURCES

The membership of tlio board con-
sists of six senior Army officers, rep-

resenting various technical branches
of the service, and of one civilian.

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER

The Chief Signal Officer is charged

with the duty of operating or super-
vising the operation of all military
air crafl and with the duty of train-
ing officers and men connected there-
with; with the supervision of all
military signal duties, and of hooks.
papers, and devices connected there-
with, including telegraph, telephone,
and radio apparatus and the neces-

sary meteorological instruments for
use on target ranges and other mili-
tary uses; the construction, repair,
and operation of military telegraph
lines and cables, and the duty of
collecting and transmitting informa-
tion for the Army by telegraph or
otherwise, and all other duties
usually pertaining to military sig-
naling.

OFFICE OF PUBLIC BUII.IUXOS AM) GROUNDS

The Office of Public Buildings
and Grounds, Washington, I ». C,

is the successor of the Commis-
sioners of Public Buildings and
Grounds, established in 17!>2 under
the direction of President Wash-
ington, and is now a bureau of the
War Department. The United states
Army Engineer Officer in Charge is
Military Aide to the President. He
administers the public park system
of the District of Columbia for the
Chief of Engineers, United States
Army, under whose jurisdiction and
control it has been placed by law ;
this park system comprises over 400
parcels of Federal property, amount-
bag in all to over 1100 acres, and
includes the Mall System as pro-
posed by [/Enfant and elaborated
by the Park Commission of 1901.
He is in charge of the preservation,
care and safety of all the buildings
occupied by the War Department, of

the Highway Bridge across the Poto-
mac and of the monument at the
birthplace of Washington. As Ex-
ecutive and Disbursing Officer of
the Grant Memorial Commission, of
the Lincoln Memorial Commission,
of the Arlington Memorial Amphi-
theater Commission and of the Fran-
cis Scott Key Monument Commis-
sion (which monument is to be
erected at Fort McHenry. Baltimore,
Md.i, he supervises and controls the
erection of those memorials. As Ex-
ecutive ami Disbursing Officer of the
Lock Creek and Potomac Parkway
Commission he has the development
of that project under his charge. He
is a member and disbursing officer
of the commission to prepare plans
and estimates for an armory for the
National Guard of the District of
Columbia, and he is Executive and
Disbursing Officer of the Arlington
.Memorial Bridge Commission.

BUREAU OF INSULAR AFFAIRS

Following the Spanish-American
War the War Department was con-
fronted with varied and com] ilex
problems in the administration of
the civil affairs of the territory
occupied by the military forces of
the United states. There were
no precedents t<> winch the officers
charged with the administration of
the affairs of this territory could
turn for guidance, and the difficul-

ties of these officers were further
complicated owing to the lack of any
administrative' machinery for hand-
ling these problems. Notwithstand-
ing the frequency in the past with
which the War Department had
been called on to conduct military
governments and civil governments
during military occupation, there
bad existed in the department no
bureau or division to which in a

DEPARTMENT OF WAR

:>\-

particular manner was committed
this work of supervision. The then
Secretary of War, recognizing the
urgent need of such a bureau or
division, organized, in December,
1898, the Division of Insular Affairs.
The rapid growth of the division
thus organized led to its being given
a legal existence July 1, 1002. and
since that date has been known as
the Bureau of Insular Affairs.

To the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
under the immediate direction of
the Secretary of War, is assigned
all matters pertaining to civil gov-
ernment in the island possessions
of the United States subject to the
jurisdiction of the War Department,
the Philippine Islands and Porto
Rico being the only ones so subject
at the present time. The bureau is
also the repository of the civil rec-
ords of the government of occupa-
tion of Cuba, and had assigned to it
matters pertaining to the provisional
government of Cuba. It makes a
comptroller's review of the receipts
and expenditures of the Philippine

and Porto Rican governments; at-
tends to the purchase and shipment
of supplies for these governments ;
has charge of appointments of per-
sons in the United States to the
civil service of the Philippines and
Porto Rico, including arrangements
for transportation. It gathers sta-
tistics of insular imports and ex-
ports, shipping and immigration,
and issues periodical summaries of
the same. In addition the bureau
has, subject to the direction of the
Secretary of State, supervision and
control of the Dominican Receiver-
ship for the collection of customs
revenues and payment of the inter-
est and principal of the adjusted
bonded indebtedness of the Domini-
can Republic. It exercises for the
receivership practically the same
functions as it does for the insular
] possessions, particularly with re-
spect to the custody of records, the
preparation and dissemination of
statistics and other information,
the purchase of supplies and the
appointment of employees.

BOARD OF ENGINEERS FOR RIVERS AND HARBORS

The Board of Engineers for Rivers
and Harbors is a permanent body,
created by the River and Harbor
Act of June 13th, 1902. To it are
referred all reports upon exam-
inations and surveys provided for
by Congress, and all projects or
changes in projects for works of
river and harbor improvement upon
which report is desired by the
Chief of Engineers, United States
Army. It is further the duty of the
Board, upon request by the Com-
mittee on Commerce of the Senate,

or by the Committee on Rivers and
Harbors of the House of Repre-
sentatives in the same manner, ro
examine and report through the
Chief of Engineers upon any ex-
aminations, surveys, or projects for
the improvement of rivers and har-
bors. In its investigations the
board gives consideration to all en-
gineering, commercial, navigation
and economic questions involved in
determining the advisability of un-
dertaking such improvements at the
expense of the United States.

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF COAST ARTILLERY

1. It is the duty of the Chief of
Coast Artillery to keep the Chief of
Staff advised and informed with
respect to the business under his
charge, including the efficiency of
the personnel and material of the
coast artillery, and he shall, as
circumstances require, make such
recommendations in reference there-

to as shall in his judgment tend to
promote efficiency.

2. He shall from time to time, and
as frequently as conditions require,
confer directly with the chiefs of
bureaus of the War Department and
advise them of all matters relating
to coast artillery material or per-
sonnel that pertain to their re-

518

OUR COl NTRY AND J'l'S RESOURCES

spective branches of the service,
which the experience and observa-
tion of the coast artillery arm <>t"
the scrvii-c show to be of practical
importance. In like manner he may
correspond directly with the com-
mandant of the Coast Artillery
School, and with the president of
the Coasl Artillery Board, on coast
artillery questions of a purely tech-
nical character which do not involve
matters of command, discipline, or
administration, and do ool relate to
the status or interests of individuals.
3. He shall make recommendations
as to the instruction of coast artil-
lery officers and men. and as to
examinations for appointment and
transfer of officers to the const artil-
lery arm and for promotion therein,
and shall recommend such examina-
tions and such courses ami methods

of instruction in the Coasl Artillery
School and elsewhere as he shall
deem requisite t<> secure a thorough-
ly trained and educated force; to
this end li«' is authorized to issue
directly to coast artillery officers
bulletins and circulars of informa-
tion on current coast artillery mat-
ters of a purely technical character
which do not involve matters of
command, discipline, or administra-
tion, and do not relate to the status
or interests of individuals.

-1. lie is charged with the recom-
mending of officers of coast artillery
for special duty and assignment to
coast artillery organizations and
stations.

.">. He shall be a member of the
Board of Ordnance and Fortification
and is by law a member of the Gen-
eral Staff Corps.

CHAPTER VIII.
DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

ATTORNEY GENERAL

T

^HE Attor-
ney Gener-
al is the
head of the De-
partment of Jus-
tice and t h e
chief law officer
of the Govern-
ment. He rep-
resents the Unit-
ed States in matters involving legal
questions ; he gives his advice and
opinion, when they are required by
the President or by the heads of the

other executive departments, on
questions of law arising in the
administration of their respective
departments ; he appears in the Su-
preme Court of the United States in
cases of especial gravity and im-
portance ; he exercises a general
superintendence and direction over
United States attorneys and mar-
shals in all judicial districts in the
States and Territories ; and he pro-
vides special counsel for the United
States whenever required by any
department of the Government.

SOLICITOR GENERAL

The Solicitor General assists the
Attorney General in the perform-
ance of his general duties, and, by
special provision of law, in case of
a vacancy in the office of the Attor-
ney General, or of his absence or
disability, exercises all those duties.
Under the direction of the Attorney
General, he has general charge of
the business of the Government in
the Supreme Court of the United
States, and is assisted in the conduct
and argument of cases therein by
the Assistant Attorneys General. He
also, with the approval of the Attor-
ney General, prepares opinions ren-

dered to the President and the heads
of the executive departments, and
confers with and directs the law
officers of the Government through-
out the country in the performance
of their duties. When the Attorney
General so directs, any case in
which the United States is inter-
ested, in any court of the United
States, may be conducted and ar-
gued by the Solicitor General ; and
he may be sent by the Attorney
General to attend to the interests
of the United States in any State
court, or elsewhere. Performs such
other duties as may be required.

THE ASSISTANT TO THE ATTORNEY GENERAL

The Assistant to the Attorney
General has special charge of all
suits and other matters arising un-
der the Federal anti-trust and inter-

state-commerce laws, and performs
such other duties as may be required
of him. from time to time, by the
Attorney General.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

mi >

OUB COl NTRY AND ITS |;i;sni i;i'i;s

ASSISTANT ATTORNEYS GENERAL

The several Assistant Attorneys
General assist the Attorney General
in the performance of his duties.
They assist in the argument of eases
in the Supreme Court and in the
preparation of legal opinions.

Five Assistant Attorneys General
are located in the main department
building at 1435 K Street, and. iii
addition to their general duties, par-
ticular subjects are assigned to them
by the Attorney General for the
transaction of business arising there-
under with United States attorneys.
other departments, and private par-
ties in Interest.

The office of the Assistant Attor-
ney General, including a number of
assistant attorneys and clerks
charged with defending suits in the
Court of (Maims, is located at S
Jackson Place.

The Assistant Attorney General in
charge of the interests of the Gov-
ernment in all matters of reappraise-
meat and classification of imported
goods in litigation before the sev-
eral hoards ot" United States General
Appraisers and the Court of Cus-
toms Appeals, is located at <'i41
Washington Street. New York.

The Assistant Attorneys General
and the solicitors for the several
executive departments exercise their
functions under the supervision and
control of the Attorney General.
They an' the Solicitor for the I >e-
partment of the Interior, the Solicitor
for the Department of State, the
Solicitor of the Treasury, the So-
licitor of Internal Revenue, the
Solicitor of the Department of Com-
merce, and the Solicitor of the
Department of Labor.

PUBLIC LANDS PIVISloX

To it are assigned all suits and
proceedings concerning the enforce-
ment of the public-land law, includ-

ing all suits or proceedings to set
aside conveyances of allotted public

lands.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk, under the direction
of tin' Attorney General, lias general
supervision of the clerks and employees;
the consideration < >r applications fur
leave of absence; the direction of the
force "f laborers, charwomen and watch-
men : superintends all buildings occu-
pied by the department in Washington;
lias charge of the horses, wagons anil
carriages employed; has supervision of

tiic Division of Mails and Files; the
purchase and distribution of supplies
for the department and the United
States courts; the expenditure of the
appropriations for contingent expenses
and rents; the consideration of requisi-
tions upon the Public Printer for print-
ing and binding; and supervision of the
preparation of the annual report and
the estimates "t" the department.

DISBURSING CLERK

The disbursing clerk disburses from
about forty appropriations, under the

direction of the Attorney General, In-
cluding the salaries of the Justices of

the Supreme Court of the United States

and the indues of the other United
states courts located in the District of
Columbia; the salaries id" the officials
of the department proper, as well as

the salaries and expenses of certain
employees stationed in the field; the
contingent expenses of the department:
supplies for United states courts: and
other special and miscellaneous appro-
priations, lie is also authorized and
directed by law to withhold and account
for the income tax as it may apph to

federal employees.

SUPERINTENDENT OF PRISONS

The superintendent of prisons has
charge, under the direction of the Attor
ni'.v General, of all matters relating to
United Slates prisons and prisoners,
including the support of such prisoners

in both state and Federal penitentiaries,

in reform schools and in county jails.
He has supervision over the construc-
tion work in progress at United States
penal institution-.

The superintendent of prisons is pres-
ident of the boards of parole for the

DEPARTMENT OE JUSTICE 521

United States penitentiaries and presi- institution which, from time to time,

dent of the boards of parole for United may be used for the confinement of

States prisoners in each State or county United States prisoners.

APPOINTMENT CLERK

The appointment clerk has charge of and employees of the department in

all matters relating to applications, Washington, and for United States

recommendations, and appointments, in- judges, attorneys, and marshals and

eluding certifications by the Civil Serv- other officers under the department. He

ice Commission ; conducts correspondence also compiles the Register of the Depart-

pertaining thereto : prepares nominations ment of Justice and matter relating

sent to the Senate ; prepares commis- to that department for the Official

sions and appointments for the officers Register of the United States.

ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF PARDONS

The attorney in charge of pardons the Secretary of War and the Secre-
taires charge of all applications for Ex- tary of the Navy, respectively; of the
ecutive clemency, except those in Army briefing of the cases and the correspond-
and Navy cases, these being referred to ence in relation to them.

ATTORNEY IN CHARGE OF TITLES

The attorney in charge of titles pre- growing out of the same. He has charge

pares opinions" upon the title to lands of all proceedings to acquire land under

belonging to or sought to be acquired eminent domain, and conducts all the

by the Government for public purposes correspondence relating to the above

and opinions upon all legal matters matters.

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS

The Chief of the Division of Accounts court accommodations ; and the advance-
has charge of the examination or audit ment of funds to United States mar-
of all accounts payable from appropria- shals ; also matters relating to the ap-
tions for expenses of the Department of pointment of office and field deputy mar-
Justice and the courts of the United shals are in charge of the chief of this
States. Accounts of United States mar- division. .
shals, attorneys, clerks, and commission- Statistical information published in
ers are examined, recorded, and trans- the annual report of the Attorney Gen-
mitted to the auditor; while other ac- eral showing the business transacted in
counts are recorded, audited, and trans- the courts of the United States, bank-
mitted to the disbursing clerk for pay- ruptcy statistics, and the various re-
ment, under recent legislation. ports required by law pertaining to ex-
Authorization of court expenses, in- penditures under appropriations for the
eluding items for office expenses and courts and the various divisions ot
clerical assistants for clerks of United the department are also compiled in
States courts ; the approval of leases of this division.

CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF INVESTIGATION

The Chief of the Division of Investi- compensation or expenses are paid from
gation has general supervision of the the appropriation "Detection and prose-
examination of the offices and records cution of crimes," and who are employed
of the Federal court officials throughout for the purpose of collecting evidence
the United States, and directs the work or of making investigations or examma-
of all the examiners, special agents, and tions of any kind for this department
accountants of the department, whose or the officers thereof.

LIBRARIAN

The librarian has general charge and of books to be purchased for the library,

supervision of the library. He is a mem- directs the cataloguing, and co-operates

ber of the committee for the selection generally in the service of the library.

CHAPTER IX.
POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT*

POSTMASTER GENERAL

THE Postmaster General is the
executive head Of the Federal
Postal Service, lie appoints all
otlicers and employees <>f the Post I >f-
fice Department except the four As-
sistant Postmasters General and the
purchasing agent, who are Presiden-
tial appointees. With the exception of
postmasters of the Qrst, second and
third classes, who are likewise Pres-
idential appointees, he appoints all

post masters and all other officers
and employees of the service at
large. Subject to the approval of
the President, he makes postal
treaties with foreign Governments.
He promulgates all rules and regu-
lations; superintends generally the
business of the department, and
executes all laws relative to the
postal service. .Much information is
contained in his annual report.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk of the Post oiliee De-
part im-iit Is charged with tin- general
superintendence and assignment of the
clerical and subclerical forces of the
department and the consideration of ap-
plications for leave of absence for such
employees; the supervision Qf the prep
aratie.ii of estimates of appropriations
for the departmental and postal service:
of advertising; the supervision of requisi-
tions upon the Treasury and the ex-
penditure of the appropriations for the
departmental service; the keeping of the
journals and order I ks ; the furnish-
ing of stationery supplies for the de-
partmental service; tile consideration
and signing of requisitions upon the
Public Printer for the printing and bind
lug required In the Postal Service and the

department, and receiving, and inspect-
ing on receipt, of blanks required in the
Post Office Department; the preparation
of contracts and general superintendence
of the publication and distribution of
the Official Postal Guide; the fixing of
rates, subject to the approval of the
Postmaster General, for the transmission
of Government tele-rams; the miscel-
laneous business corresponden f the

Postmaster General's otlice. and miscel-
laneous correspondence of the depart-
ment not assigned to other otlice-; the
care of the department and other build-
ings used iii connection therewith, and
Of all furniture and public property
therein ; and the performance of such
other duties as may he required by the
Postmaster General.

SOLICITOR FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT

The solicitor is charged with the duty
giving opinions to the Postmaster

i ,, Qeral and the heads of the several

offices of the department upon questions
w arising upon the construction of
the postal laws and regulations, or other-
wise, in the course of business In the
Postal Service; with the consideration
submission (with advice) to the
Postmaster General of all claims ol post-
masters for losses by tire, burglary, or
other unavoidable casualty, and ol all

certifications by the Auditor for the
Post Office Department of cases of pro-
posed compromise of liabilities to the

United States and of the remission of
lines, penalties, and forfeitures under
the statute-; with the giving of advice
when desired in the preparation of cor
respondence with the Department of
Justice and other departments. Includ-
ing the Court of Claims. Involving unc-
tion- of law or relating to prosecutions
or suits affecting or arising out of the

There is a special chapter on tin' Posl Office, page 161.
Copyright by Munn & <'■>., Inc.

POST OFF ICE DEPARTMENT

52^

Tostal Service, and with assisting when
desired in the prosecution or defense of
such cases, and the maintenance of suit-
able records of opinions rendered affect-
ing the Post Office Department and the
Postal Service ; and with the considera-
tion of applications for pardon . for
crimes committed against the postal
laws which may be referred to the de-
partment ; with the preparation and sub-
mission (with advice) to the Postmaster
General of all appeals to him from the
heads of the offices of the department
depending upon questions of law ; with
the determining of questions as to the
delivery of mail the ownership of which

is in dispute ; with the hearing and con-
sideration of cases relating to lotteries
and the misuse of the mails in further-
ance of schemes to defraud the public ;
with the consideration of all questions
relating to the mailability of alleged in-
decent, obscene, scurrilous, or defama-
tory matter ; with determining the legal
adaptability of securities offered by
banks to secure postal savings deposits ;
with the examining and, when neces-
sary, drafting of all contracts of the
department ; and with such other like
duties as may from time to time be
required of him by the Postmaster
General.

PURCHASING AGENT

The purchasing agent supervises the
purchase of all supplies both for the
Post Office Department proper and for
all branches of the Postal Service. He
reviews all requisitions and authoriza-
tions for supplies and, if proper, honors
the same. He passes upon the suffi-
ciency and propriety of all specifica-

tions for proposals for supplies ; pre-
pares the advertisements and forms for
proposals necessary to the making of
contracts for supplies ; reviews the re-
ports of the committees on awards and
recommends to the Postmaster General
such action as in his judgment should
be taken thereon.

CHIEF INSPECTOR

The chief inspector supervises the
work of post office inspectors and of the
division of post office inspectors. To
him is charged the preparation and issue
of all cases for investigation, all mat-
ters relating to depredations upon the
mails and losses therein, the custody of
money and property collected or received

by inspectors, and the restoration there-
of to the proper parties or owners, and
the consideration and adjustment of ac-
counts of inspectors for salary and ex-
penses. To his office are referred all
complaints of losses or irregularities in
the mails and all reported violations
of the postal laws.

FIRST ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL

The First Assistant Postmaster
General has charge of the following
divisions, to which are assigned the
duties specified :

Post Office Service. — The organ-
ization of post offices, salaries of
postmasters, the appointment and
salaries of assistant postmasters,
supervisory officers, clerks, and city
letter carriers, authorization of new
or changes in existing service on
pneumatic tube routes, and Govern-
ment-owned automobile routes, es
tablishment of mail messenger and
regulation, screen, or other wagon
service, the performance of service
by contractors on such routes and
complaints concerning the same,
Government-owned automobile serv-
ice, the establishment, maintenance
and extension of city delivery-and-
collection service, and all matters
concerning special delivery service.
Allowances for rent, light, fuel, clerk

hire, labor incident to cleaning post
offices, telephone rental, water rental,
laundering, towel service, and mis
cellaneous service items.

Postmasters' Appointments. — The
appointment of a postmaster, to post-
masters' bonds and commissions.
bonds of all employees in post offices
except rural carriers and village de-
livery carriers, leave of absence of
postmasters, and the establishment,
discontinuance, or change of site, of
a fourth-class post office.

Dead Letters. — The treatment of
all unmailable and undelivered mail
matter which is sent to it for dis-
position ; the examination and for-
warding or return of all letters which
have failed of delivery ; the inspec-
tion and return to the country of
origin of undelivered foreign mat-
ter ; recording and restoration to
owners of letters and parcels which
contain valuable inclosures ; care and

524

01 I! COl NTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

disposition of all money, negotiable correspondence, l>"tli foreign and
paper, and other valuable articles domestic relating to these sub-
found in undelivered matter and jects.

SECOND ASSISTANT 1'OSTMASTER GENERAL

foreign mails; the preparation of
postal conventions (except those rel-
ative to the money-order system)
and the regulations for their execu-
tion, as well as the consideration of
the questions arising under them and
with the preparation of all corre-
spondence relative thereto. Also has
supervision of the ocean mail ser-
vice, including the adjustment of
accounts with steamship companies
tor the transportation of mails to
foreign count ries.

Railway Mail Service. — Is charged
with the supervision of the Railway
Mail Service and railway postal
clerks; prepares cases for the ap-
pointment, removal, promotion, and
reduction of said clerks; conducts
correspondence and issues orders
relative to the moving of the mails
on railroad trains; has charge of
the dispatch and distribution of
mail matter in railway postal cars
and post offices; conducts the weigh-
ing of mails; and attends to all
correspondence relative to these
matters.

OSTMASTER GENERAL

Stamps. — The supervision of the

manufacture and issuance to post-
masters of postage stamps, stamp
hooks, stamped envelopes, newspa-
per wrappers, postal cards, and pos-
tal saving stamps and cards by the
various contractors: and the keep-
in- of the accounts and records of
these transactions. The receipt and
disposition of damaged and unsala-
ble Stamped paper returned by post-
masters for redemption and credit.

Mi, mil Orders. — The supervision
and management of the money-order
service, both domestic and interna-
tional; the preparation of conven-
tions for the exchange of money or-
ders with foreign countries.

Registered Kails. The supervision
and management of the registry, in-

The Second Assistant Postmaster
General has charge of the authoriza-
tion of new or changes in existing
steamboat, aviation and Alaska star

route services.

Rail/nil/ Adjustments. — Has charge
of the preparation of cases author-
izing the transportation of mails by
railroads; the establishment of rail-
way postal car service and changes
in existing service; prepares orders
and instructions for the weighing
of the mails on railroads; receives
and tabulates the returns and com-
putes basis of pay therefrom; pre-
pares cases for adjustment of allow-
ances to railroads for carrying the
mails, and for postal cars; author-
izes expenditures and credits for the
weighing of the mails, and transpor-
tation by freight or express of postal
cards, stamped envelopes, periodical
mail matter and mail equipment;
and prepares all correspondence rela-
tive to these matters.

Foreign Mail*. Is charged with
the duty of arranging all details con-
nected with the transportation of

THIRD ASSISTANT I

The Third Assistant Postmaster
General has charge of the following
divisions, to which are assigned the
duties specified :

Finance. — The financial opera-
tions, including the collection and
deposit of postal revenues; the dis-
tribution of postal funds among the
several depositaries so as to equal-
ize, as far as possible, receipts and
expenditures in the same section;
the payment by warrant of all ac-
counts settled by the auditor; the
receipt and disposition of all moneys
coming directly to the department;
and the keeping of books of account
showing the fiscal operations of the
postal and money-order services and
the regulation of box rents and key
depo

POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT

suranee, and eollect-on-delivery ser-
vices ; the establishment and con-
trol of all registry dispatches and
exchanges ; the instruction of post-
masters and the furnishing of in-
formation in relation to these mat-
ters ; and the consideration of all
claims for indemnity for lost regis-
tered, insured, and C. O. D. mail.

Classification.— The general con-
trol of all business relating to the
classification of domestic mail mat-
ter and the rates of postage thereon,
including the determination of the
admissibility of publications to the
second class of mail matter, their
right to continue in that class, and
the instruction of postmasters rela-

tive thereto; also the use of penalty
envelopes, the franking privilege,
and the limit of weight and size
of mail matter.

Postal Savings. — The conduct and
management of the administrative
office of the postal savings system
at Washington ; the selection and
designation of post offices as postal
savings depository offices and the
supervision of the business trans-
acted at such offices ; the manage-
ment and investment of postal sav-
ings funds as the agent of the board
of trustees; and the administrative
examination of accounts of post-
masters and other fiscal agents of
the system.

FOURTH ASSISTANT POSTM ASTER GENERAL

This bureau embraces the Divi-
sion of Rural Mails, with horse-
drawn and motor vehicle service,
and the star route service, the Divi-
sion of Equipment and Supplies,
and Village Delivery. All requests
for rural service, star route service
or extensions of service, the appoint-
ment and discipline of rural car-
riers, and the preparation of all ad-
vertisements inviting proposals for
star routes, and making awards and
contracts, making rural delivery
maps and distributing parcel post
maps and guides, and all supplies
which postmasters need in the con-
duct of postal business, including
office appliances of every descrip-
tion, and all correspondence relating
thereto, belong to the duties of this
office.

The manufacturing enterprises of
the Post Office Department, consist-

ing of the mail bag repair shop and
the lock shop, are also under the
direction of the Fourth Assistant.
All repairs, and the manufacture of
new sacks and pouches when neces-
sity requires, the manufacture of all
locks and repair of same, and all
mechanical devices used in the Rail-
way Mail Service and post offices,
which can be furnished from the
lock shop, as well as new mechan-
ical designs and improvements for
the service, are included. The ex-
perimental and research work con-
nected with such manufacturing en-
terprises, made necessary to meet
new and changing conditions, deter-
mining the needs of the service as
to style and character of equipment,
and assure economy in expenditures,
is directly under the personal super-
vision and control of the head of this
bureau.

CHAPTER X.

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY*

SECRETARY OF THE NAVY

THE Secretary of the Navy per-
forins such duties as the Presi-
dent of the United states, who
is Commander in Chief, may assign

him, and has the general superin-
tendence of construction, manning,
armament, equipment, and employ-
ment of vessels of war.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE NAVY

The Assistant Secretary of the
Navy performs such duties as may

be prescribed by the Secretary of

the Navy or required by law.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk has general charge
of the records and correspondence
of the Secretary's office, and per-

forms such other duties as may be
assigned to him by the Secretary of
the Navy.

OFFICE OF NAVAL OPERATIONS

The Office of Naval Operations
was established by Act of Con-
gress of March ::. P.) IT,. That act
provided that the Chief of Naval
Operations should be selected from
an otlicer of the line of the Navy
not below the raid; of captain and
that while holding this position he
should have the rank, title and emol-
uments of a rear admiral. The act
of August 20. 1916, provides that
while so serving the Chief of Naval
Operations shall have the rank and
title of admiral, to take rank next
after the admiral of the Navy and
shall receive the pay of $10,000 per
annum and no allowances. lie is
appointed for a period of four years.

The Chief of Naval Operations is
charged, under the direction of the
Secretary of the Xavy, with the op-
erations of the fleet and with the
preparation and readiness of plans
for its use in war. This Includes

the direction of the Naval War Col-
lege, the Office of Naval Intelligence,
inspections, gunnery exercises and
engineering performances, the oper-
ation of the radio service and of
other systems of communication, the
operations of the aeronautic service,
of mines and mining, of the naval
districts. Naval Militia, and of the
Coast Guard when operating with
the Navy; the direction of ail strat-
egic and tactical matters, organiza-
tion, maneuvers, target practice,
drills and exercises, and of the train-
ing of the fleet for war: and the
preparation, revision and enforce-
ment of all tactics, drill hooks, sig-
nal codes and cipher codes. The
orders issued by the Chief of Naval
Operations in the performance of
his duties are considered as eman-
ating from the Secretary of the Navy
and have full force and effect as
such.

♦There is a special chapter on ••'i'lo> New Navy," page 281.
Copyright by Mann & Co., Inc.

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

527

The Chief of Naval Operations
from time to time witnesses the op-
erations of the fleet as an observer.

He has two principal senior as-
sistants, officers not below the grade

of captain, one as assistant for oper-
ations and the other as assistant for
material.

He is ex-officio a member of the
General Board.

COMMUNICATIONS OFFICE

The Communications Office under
the direction of the Chief of Naval
Operations handles all the dispatch
work of the Navy Department
(radio, telegraph, cable, and tele-
phone). A commissioned officer is
on watch in the Communications Of-
fice at all times, night and day,
and is responsible for the routing,
coding, and decoding of all dis-
patches. He is responsible for the
proper delivery of all received of-
ficial dispatches.

The Assistant Communications Of-
ficer on watch keeps himself in-
formed of the general and special
situations in order that he may thor-
oughly understand the bearing of
dispatches received outside of de-
partmental hours, and he is respon-
sible that dispatches of importance
requiring immediate action are com-
municated as soon as possible to the
proper officer.

The Arlington Radio Station is
operated from this office.

OFFICE OF NAVAL INTELLIGENCE

The Office of Naval Intelligence
is charged with the collection and
dissemination of such technical in-
formation at home and abroad as
will be useful to the Chief of Naval

Operations and to the various bur-
eaus of the Navy Department in the
formulation of plans for war and in
the development of personnel and
materiel.

OFFICE OF GUNNERY EXERCISES AND ENGINEERING PERFORMANCES

The Office of Gunnery Exercises
and Engineering performances is
charged with the duties, under the
Chief of Naval Operations, of formu-
lating the rules for all forms of
gunnery exercises and steaming per-
formances ; computing, compiling,

and publishing in confidential form
the results and records of these com-
petitions ; the award of prizes,
trophies, and commendatory letters
in connection therewith, these com-
petitions being the means to the
end ; i.. e., battle efficiency.

NAVAL COMMUNICATION SERVICE

The Office of Director of Naval
Communications is established under
the Chief of Naval Operations. The
Director of Naval Communications
is charged with matters pertaining
to the operation of naval radio sta-
tions ashore, and in addition is
charged with the duties in connec-
tion with and is responsible for the
efficient, handling of all telegraph,
telephone and cable and generally
all dispatch work between the Navy
Department and the fleet, and
throughout the naval service out-
side the fleet. In his administration
of the foregoing he has general

charge of the operation, organiza-
tion, and administration of the Com-
munication Service. He co-operates
with officials designated by the Sec-
retary of Commerce in reference to
location of proposed commercial sta-
tions, the licensing of operators, the
control of the operation of commer-
cial stations under the law, and the
assignment of wave lengths for use
by commercial stations which wall
comply with the law and thereby
prevent possible interference with
the organization and opera-
tion of the Naval Communication
Service,

f.L'N

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

DIVISION OP NAVAL MIUTIA AFFAIRS

Since the passage of the Naval
Militia Act of February if,, 1914,
the activities of the Naval Militia
insofar as they concern the Fed-
eral Government have come under
the Navy Department. All duties in
connection with the instruction and
training of the Naval Militia and of
vessels loaned for their use are un-
der the control of the Chief of Naval
Operations. This part of the activ-
ities of the office of the Chief of
Operations is directly in the hands
of the Division of Naval Militia Af-
fairs. This division is. in effect, a
complete Navy Department for the
Naval Militia insofar as the Fed-
eral Government is concerned. The
Naval Militia Act of February 16,
1914, provided that the Secretary of
the Navy is authorized to so organ-
ize, arm, uniform, equip, and train
the Naval Militia that it may be
eligible to be called forth by the
President of the United States to
serve the United States in the event
of war, actual or threatened, with
any foreign nation. In consequence
of this act the Secretary of the Navy
has defined the units, the number
and rank of officers, and the number
and rates of petty officers and en-
listed men of all Naval Militia or-
ganizations. The Division of Naval
Militia Affairs has laid down a
standard of professional and physi-
cal examinations for all grades and
ranks in the Naval Militia in order

that such officers and men may be
mustered into service without fur-
ther appointment, enlistment or ex-
aniinal inn.

The division also has control of
regulations and contracts under
which vessels of the Navy are loaned
to the Naval Militia for their train-
ing and instruction. Officers are ap-
pointed to make annual inspections
of Naval Militia organization. Rules
and regulations covering the details
of training have also been laid down
by the division to cover instruction
for the Naval Militia given by in-
spector-instructors, officers of the
regular Navy detailed for this spe-
cific duty. The division also con-
ducts cruises for instruction of the
Naval Militia on vessels of the reg-
ular Navy, vessels loaned to the
State, aeronautic encampments and
Marine Corps encampments. All mat-
ters pertaining to the Naval Militia
under existing laws and regulations
come within the jurisdiction of the
Division of Naval Militia Affairs.
The records of officers and men,
cruises and all like duties of the
Naval Militia are kept in the D. N.
M. A. In the event of the mustering
into the Federal service of the Naval
Militia for active duty the division
from its records of officers and men
would recommend the detail of such
officers and men and their orders
would be based on such recommenda-
tions.

BUREAU OF

The duties of the Bureau of Navi-
gation comprise the issue, record and
enforcement of the orders of the
secretary to the individual officers of
the Navy ; the training and educa-
tion of line officers and of enlisted
men (except of the Hospital Corps)
at schools and stations and in ves-
sels maintained for that purpose;
the upkeep and operation of the
Naval Academy, of technical schools
for line officers, of the apprentice-
seamen establishments, of schools
for the technical education of eu-

NAVIGATION
listed men, and of the naval home at
Philadelphia, Pa.; the upkeep and

the payment of the operating ex-
penses of the Naval War College;
the enlistment, assignment to duty,
and discharge of enlisted persons.

(2) It has under its direction all
rendezvous and receiving ships, and
provides transportation for all en-
listed persons under its cognizance.

(3) It establishes the comple-
ments of all ships in commission.

(4) It keeps the records of service
of all Officers and men. and prepares

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

52i)

an annual Navy Register for pub-
lication, embodying therein data as
to fleets, squadrons, and ships, which
shall be furnished by the Chief of
Naval Operations. To the end that
it may be able to carry out the
provisions of this paragraph, all
communications to or from ships in
commission relating to the personnel
of such ships are forwarded through
this bureau, whatever their origin
may be.

(5) It is charged with all matters
pertaining to applications for ap-
pointments and commissions in the
Navy, and with the preparation of
such appointments and commissions
for signature.

(6) It is charged with the prepar-
ation, revision, and enforcement of
all regulations governing uniform,
and with the distribution of all or-
ders and regulations of a general
or circular character.

(7) Questions of naval discipline,
rewards, and punishments are sub-
mitted by this bureau for the action
of the Secretary of the Navy. The
records of all general courts-martial
and courts of inquiry involving the
personnel of the Navy before final
action are referred to this bureau
for comment as to disciplinary fea-
tures.

(8) It receives and brings to the
attention of the Secretary of the
Navy all applications from officers
for duty or leave.

(9) It receives all reports of ser-
vice performed by individual officers
or men.

(10) It is charged with the en-
forcement of regulations and instruc-
tions regarding naval ceremonies
and naval etiquette.

(11) It shall be charged with the
upkeep and operation of the Hydro-
graphic Office, the Naval Observa-
tory, Nautical Almanac, and Com-
pass offices ; with all that relates to
the supply of ships with navigational
outfits, including instruments, and
with the maintenance and repair of
the same; with the collection of
foreign surveys, and with the publi-
cation and supply of charts, sailing
directions, and. nautical works, and
the dissemination of nautical, hydro-
graphic, and meteorological informa-
tion to the Navy and mercantile
marine. It shall also have charge
of all ocean and lake surveys, and
ships' and crews' libraries; it shall
defray the expenses of pilotage of
all ships in commission.

(12) It shall be charged with the
formation of the Naval Reserve and
with all matters relating thereto.

UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY
Including the Nautical Almanac Office

DOME OF OBSERVATORY

Naval Observatory, Washington, P. C.

The Naval Observatory furnishes
the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains with the standard
time at noon, seventy-fifth merid-
ian time, each day, both by tele-
graph and radio, while the chronom-
eter and time station at the Navy
Yard, Mare Island, California, does
the same for the country west of
the Rockies.

Through the Navy Radio Station
the Observatory furnishes vessels
navigating the north Atlantic Ocean
and the Gulf of Mexico the standard
time twice each day, at noon and
10 P. M., and these radio time sig-
nals are becoming increasingly used,

530

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

THE MAIN BUILDING OF THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C.

by persons having receiving wireless
sets throughout the country, in pref-
erence to the telegraphic signals.
Navigators, surveyors and astron-

omers are kept supplied with the po
sitions uf the heavenly bodies in a
form for practical use through the
American Ephemeris and Nautical

TRANSMITTING CLOCKS, CHRONOGRAPHS AND SWITCHBOARDS USED IN THE
V, S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY IN SENDING OUT THE TIME TO THE COUNTRY

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

531

Almanac, and the American Nauti-
cal Almanac through the Nautical
Almanac Office, which is a depart-
ment of the Naval Observatory.

In order to assist in furnishing
data to keep the Almanac and Eph-
emeris up to the highest attainable
standard of accuracy continuous
fundamental observations of the
heavenly bodies are kept up at the
Observatory.

When a mariner, a surveyor or an

THE BUREAU OF

The duties of the Bureau of
Yards and Docks comprise all that
relate to the design and construc-
tion of public works of the Navy.
such as dry docks, marine rail-
ways, building ways, harbor works,
quay walls, piers, wharves, slips,
dredging, landings, floating and sta-

astronomer wishes to find his astron-
omical position on the globe he does
it by observations of the heavenly
bodies, using the Nautical Almanac
and a comparison of his local time
with that of the Observatory.

The Naval Observatory also super-
vises the supplying of the vessels of
the Navy and the Naval Air Service
with all the instruments used for
navigating them, which are numer-
ous and interesting.

YARDS AND DOCKS
vehicles, horses, teams, subsistence,
and necessary operators and team-
sters in the navy yards. It pro-
vides clerks for the office of the com-
mandant, the captain of the yard,
and public works officer.

In general the work of the bureau
is carried out by commissioned offi-

COMPARING DECK CLOCKS FOE WAR VESSELS

tionary cranes, power plants, coal-
ing plants, heating, lighting, tele-
phone, water, sewer and railroad
systems : roads, walks and grounds ;
bridges, radio towers, hospitals and
all buildings for whatever purpose
needed, under the Navy and Marine
Corps. It has charge of all means
of transportation, such as derricks,
shears, locomotives, locomotive
cranes, cars, motor trucks, and all

cers of the Corps of Civil Engineers,
United States Navy, whose major
duties comprise the construction, re-
pair and maintenance of the public
works and utilities of the Navy.

During the comparatively recent
upbuilding of shore establishments
of the Navy, large masonry dry
docks have been completed at the
navy yards, New York, Norfolk,
Philadelphia and Charleston on the

532

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

east coast, and at Mare Island and
Puget Sound on the west coast. In
addition a 1,000-foot dry dock is
now under construction at the Naval
Station, 1'earl Harbor, Hawaii. This
dock when completed is estimated
to cost approximately $4,986,500. To
provide an entrance channel from
the sea to the site of the dock and
the naval station, extensive dredging
operations were necessary, over $3,-
000.000 having been expended for
this purpose under a single contract.
During the last ten years there have
been expended under the cognizance
of this bureau approximately $70,-
500.000.

The bureau is justly proud of its
record in connection with the con-
struction and operation of the cen-
tral power plants at the various
navy yards, these central plants hav-
ing been provided for by act of Con-
gress in 1904, in order to avoid the
great waste in connection with the
operation of many separate plants
at each yard. Fourteen such cen-
tral power plants have been con-
structed and equipped with the most
modern apparatus. To give an idea
as to their magnitude it may be
stated that these plants produced
during the fiscal year 1915 a total
of approximately 50,000,000 kilowatt
hours of electric power, O.OOO.OOO.ni it i
cubic feet of compressed air, and
3,000,000,000 pounds of steam.

The rapid increase in the use of
fuel oil as a source of power for
ships has led to the construction of
extensive fuel oil storage plants,
some seven plants having been com-
pleted, with many others contem-
plated. The present capacity of
these plants is npproximatelv 30,-
000,000 gallons of oil, which will
probably lie increased to 150,000,000
gallons. These plants are equipped
with powerful pumps capable Of de-
livering heavy oils from tanks to
ships at the high rate of 1,000 gal-

lons per minute. The tanks are
equipped with automatically con-
trolled fire systems, which provide
in case of fire a blanket of inert
pis in the form of foam over the
surface of the oil.

The bureau has had charge of
the design and construction of radio
towers and other public works con-
nected with the development of the
high power radio stations of the
Navy. The location of these sta-
tions is shown on the Military-Naval
.Map. The first of these stations to
be completed was that at Arlington,
Virginia, others have followed at
Colon and Balboa on the Isthmus;
Chicago, Illinois; Chelsea. Massachu-
setts; Washington, I». C. : Key West,
Florida: New Orleans, Louisiana;
Point Isabel, Texas: Ouantanamo,
Cuba; Cordova. Alaska: Keyport,
Washington; San Diego, California:
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii: Island of
Guam : Cavite, P. I. The stations
in Hawaii have been in telephonic
communication by wireless with the
radio station at Arlington. Virginia.

This bureau has designed and con-
structed practically all of the im-
portant graving docks in the Fnited
States. Most of these docks have
been built by and for the Navy. It
has, by arrangements made between
the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
and the Navy Department, designed
and is supervising the construction
of the State Graving Docks in Bos-
ton. It will also give general super-
vision to the graving dock to be
constructed by the Union Iron
Works in San Francisco. California.

A member of the Corps of Civil
Engineers of the Navy has been
connected with the construction of
the Panama Canal as Commissioner
and also Engineer of Terminal Con-
struction. This bureau has been
represented by one of its officers on
the International Board of Consult-
ing Engineers.

BUHKAC OK OUDXANCE

The Bureau of Ordnance of the the design and manufacture of all
Navy Department is charged with guns, gnu carriages, ammunition,

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

mines, torpedoes, and explosives
used by the Navy Department.
It has under its cognizance the
Gun Factory at Washington, D. C,
the Naval Proving Ground at
Indian Head, Md., and the Tor-
pedo Station at Newport, R. I.,
besides all of the magazines and
ammunition depots pertaining to
the Navy.

The duties of the Bureau of Ord-
nance comprise all that relates to
the upkeep, repair and operation of
the torpedo station, naval proving
ground, and magazines on shore, to
the manufacture of offensive and
defensive arms and apparatus (in-
cluding torpedoes and armor), all
ammunition and war explosives. It
requires for or manufactures all ma-
chinery, apparatus, equipment, ma-
terial and supplies required by or
for use with the above.

It determines the interior dimen-
sions of revolving turrets and their
requirements as regards rotation.

As the work proceeds it inspects
the installation of the permanent
fixtures of the armament and its
accessories on board ship, and the
method of stowing, handling, and
transporting ammunition and tor-
pedoes, all of which work must be
performed to its satisfaction. It

designs and constructs all turret
ammunition hoists, determines the
requirements of all ammunition
hoists and the method of con-
struction of armories and ammu-
nition rooms on shipboard, and.
in conjunction with the Bureau of
Construction and Repair, determines
upon their location and that of all
ammunition hoists outside of tur-
rets. It installs all parts of the
armament and its accessories which
are not permanently attached to
any portion of the structure of the
hull, excepting turret guns, turret
mounts, and ammunition hoists, and
such other mounts as require simul-
taneous structural work in connec-
tion with installation or removal.
It confers with the Bureau of Con-
struction and Repair respecting the
arrangements for centering the tur-
rets and the character of the roller
paths and their supports.

It has cognizance of all electrically
operated ammunition hoists, ram-
mers and gun-elevating gear which
are in turrets ; of electric training
and elevating gear for gun mounts
not in turrets; of electrically opera-
ted air compressors for charging tor-
pedoes ; and of all range finders and
battle order and range transmitters
and indicators.

BUREAU OP CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR

The head of this Bureau is the
Chief Constructor, who is an offi-
cer of the Construction Corps of
the Navy and is appointed by the
President and confirmed by the
Senate for a four-year term. By
the authority of statute law orders
issued by him in regard to the work
of this bureau have the same force
and effect as though issued by the
Secretary of the Navy.

The Chief Constructor is respon-
sible for the general designs of all
vessels of the Navy and for incor-
porating therein the military char-
acteristics approved by the Secre-
tary of the Navy and for making
the necessary provision in the de-
sign and in the completed ship for

the propelling machinery, ordnance
and other items under the cognizance
of other bureaus of the Navy De-
partment. He is responsible for the
detail design and construction of
ships' hulls, their strength and
stability, hull auxiliaries, fittings
and equipage. In connection with
the same parts he is charged with
their inspection in ships building by
private contract, with their construc-
tion in ships building in navy yards,
with their repair in ships in com-
mission, with their maintenance
and preservation in ships out of com-
mission, and with the preparation of
specifications for and the inspection
of all material necessary for these
various purposes.

::i

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

in the execution of these duties he penditure of all appropriations made
is responsible for the proper ex- by Congress for these purposes.

The Bureau of Steam Engineor-
Ing is charged with the responsi-
bility for the design, the construc-
tion, and the maintenance in good
condition of the propelling machin-
ery of vessels of the Navy: of their
electric light and power equipment,
except of motors installed by other
bureaus; of radio stations and their
equipment on shore and of the radio
equipment afloat; of heating and re-

BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING

It is specifically charged with the
design, supply, installation, main-
tenance, .'111(1 repair of all means of
interior and exterior electric signal
communications (except range find-
ers and battle-order and range trans-
mitters and indicators i, and of all
electrical appliances of whatsoever
nature on board naval vessels, ex-
cept motors and their controlling
apparatus used to operate the ma-

frigerating apparatus; of distillim
apparatus; of the interior communi-
cation system, comprising tele-
phones, call bells, etc., and of elec-
tric signaling apparatus; of aero-
plane motors, motors for small
boats, and for all steam connections
in the ship.

In carrying out this work it has
indirect control of the shops of the
machinery division in navy yards
and has supervision and control of
the Engineering Experiment Station
at Annapolis, the Aeronautic Motor
Laboratory at Washington and of
laboratories for other purposes in
navy yards, and of the fuel oil test-
ing plant at Philadelphia.

It has cognizance of the entire
svstein of interior communications.

chinery belonging to other bureaus.

It has charge of the design, manu-
facture, installation, maintenance.
repair, and operation of wireless
telegraph outfits on board ship and
of wireless telegraph outfits and
stations on shore. (See "Radio
Service.-' p. 528. )

It has charge of the design, manu-
facture, installation, maintenance,
repair, and operation of aeroplane
motors and propellers and their
attachments.

It has supervision and control of
the Engineering Experiment Station.

It designs the various shops at
navy yards and stations where its
own work is executed, SO far as
their internal arrangements are con-
cerned.

BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

The Medical Department of the
Navy has charge <»f the well-being
in health and disease of the per-
sonnel of the Navy and Marine
Corps, numbering now over 100,000.
Not only is sickness cared for,
hospital or sick-bay treatment pro-
vided, necessary operative measures
undertaken, but also those in sound
health are safeguarded in life and
limb as far as modern science can
avail.

To this end Surpreon General W.
<". Braisted lias under him a Medical
Corps authorized up to a total of
over <;o<>. a Dental Corps, a Nurse
<'(irps. and a Hospital Corps of an
authorized strength of over 3.000.

In addition he has available for call
Medical and Dental Reserve Corps
composed of physicians and dentists
in civil life who have patriotically
offered their services in case of na-
tional emergency.

These forces are directed by the
Surgeon General, as head of the Bu-
reau of Medicine and Surgery. He
has charge of the upkeep and opera-
tion of all naval hospitals, number-
ing at present eighteen, situated not
only within the continental limits
of the United states, but also iii our
insular possessions. He has under
consideration all questions concern-
ing the health, the hygiene, and sani-
tation of the service, ashore and

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

U. S. NAVAL MEDICAL SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, B. C

afloat. One or more medical officers
are carried on all ships operating
singly, and on flagships of destroyer
and submarine flotillas.

The Medical Corps in addition un-
dertakes all physical examinations
for the service at the many recruit-
ing stations throughout the coun-
try, and on board ships and at naval
stations and yards. It passes pro-
fessionally upon all applicants for
enlistment or promotion in the Hos-
pital Corps, and educates and super-
vises the members of this corps dur-
ing the entire tenure of service. To
this end two excellent Hospital
Corps Training Schools have been

established, one at Newport, R. T.,
the other at San Francisco, Cal.

The Surgeon General assigns.
through the Bureau of Navigation,
all of the personnel under his
charge to their respective duties,
keeping himself constantly in touch
with all specially qualified in vari-
ous professional lines. He also lias
charge of the upkeep and operations
of the three Naval Medical Supply
Depots (Brooklyn, Mare Island and
Canacao), medical laboratories, dis-
pensaries, and technical schools for
the Medical and Hospital Corps. The
Naval Medical School, in connection
with the Naval Hospital, Washiug-

OPERATING ROOM OF THE U. S. HOSPITAL SHIP "SOLACE"

536

OL'R COT NTKY AND ITS RESOURCES

l

HOISTING A

PATIENT ON
"SOLACE"

BOARD THE

ton, 1). C. provides most valuable
post-graduate courses, and labora-
tory facilities for research and In-
vestigation.

one of the most valuable assets
of the Medical Department is the
Hospital Ship "Solace." attached to
the Atlantic Fleet, and even more
so will be the magnificent new hos-
pital ship authorized bj the Sixty-
fourth Congress.

In addition to the many above en-
umerated duties and responsibilities,
the Surgeon General requisitions for
all supplies, medicines, instruments.
etc., used in the Medical Department
of the Navy, and he has control of
the preparation, reception, storage,
care, custody, transfer, and issue of
all supplies of every kind used in
the Medical Department for its own
purposes.

And lastly, the numerous gallant
activities on foreign shores which
have made the name of the V. S.
Marine Corps justly famous, are al-
ways attended by their quotas of
efficient, self-sacrificing, and beroic
members of the Medical and Hospi-
tal Corps of the U. S. Navy.

bureau of Supplies and accounts

The duties <>f the Bureau of Sup-
plies and Accounts comprise all
that pertains to the purchase, re-
ceipt, care, issue and accounting
for ;ill supplies and materials for
the Navy, which include provisions,
clothing, coal, oil and genera] sup-
plies: the preparation of standard
specifications for all supplies: the
shipment thereof. Including trans-
portation id' coal and fuel oil and
the location of the sources of supply.

They also comprise the audit of
property returns; audit and payment
of vouchers under contract : payment
<>f traveling expenses, gratuity

claims and allotments made by of-
ficers and enlisted men. and pay-
ments to the Naval Reserve; the
recording of expenditures of money
under the several appropriations and
the distribution of costs to the vari-
ous activities of the Naval estab-
lishment. This bureau also admin-
isters the Commissary Department
of the Navy and is responsible for
procuring and issuing all food sup-
plies to the enlisted men: it like-
wise operates the i wo naval clothing
factories where articles of uniform
and clothing are manufactured for
the men.

HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE*

The Hydrographic Office carries and navigational data from mar-
on marine surveying in foreign iners, professional publications. Gov-
waters; gathers hydrographic eminent officials, etc.. at home and

•Tin' work of Oils (.nice is et' surh importance that a special illustrated chapter
dealing in part with this subject will be found on page !-".».

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

537

abroad; prepares, prints, and issues
navigational charts of foreign wa-
ters to the Navy and other public
services and sells them to the mer-
chant marine and the public ; sim-

ilarly with regard to books of sail-
ing directions for foreign waters and
manuals and tables for navigators,
except that their printing is done at
the Government Printing Office.

OFFICE OF THE JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL

The act of March 2, 1865, au-
thorized the President to appoint
an officer in the Navy Department
to be Called "the Solicitor and
Naval Judge Advocate General."
The appointee pursuant to this
act was carried on the Navy Regis-
ter until INTO when the Depart-
ment of Justice was established.
The act establishing the Department
of Justice (June 22, 1870) provided
that "the Solicitor and Naval Judge
Advocate General, who shall here-
after be known as the Naval Solici-
tor," should be transferred to the
Department of Justice. The incum-
bent's name was then dropped from
the Navy Register and placed upon
the rolls of the Department of Jus-
tice. At his death in 1878 he was
succeeded by an Acting Judge Ad-
vocate General, whose office was in
the Navy Department until June 8,
1S80, when the office of the Judge
Advocate General of the Navy, as
a part of the Department of the
Navy, was established.

The duties of the Judge Advocate
General of the Navy are set forth
in detail in the United States Navy
Regulations, 1913, as follows:

"The duties of the Judge Advocate
General of the Navy shall be to re-
vise and report upon the legal fea-
tures of and have recorded the pro-
cee dings of all courts-martial,
courts of inquiry, boards of investi-
gation, inquest, and boards for the
examination of officers for retire-
ment and promotion in the naval
service; to prepare charges and
specifications for courts-martial,
and the necessary orders convening
courts-martial in cases where such
courts are ordered by the Secretary
of the Navy; to prepare court-mar-
tial orders promulgating the final
action of the reviewing authority in

court-martial cases; to prepare the
necessary orders convening courts of
inquiry in cases where such courts
are ordered by the Secretary of the
Navy, and boards for the examina-
tion of officers for promotion and re-
tirement, and for the examination of
candidates for appointment as com-
missioned officers in the Navy other
than midshipmen, and to conduct all
official correspondence relating to
such courts and boards.

"It is also the duty of the Judge
Advocate General to examine and
report upon all questions relating to
rank and precedence, to promotions
and retirements, and to the validity
of the proceedings in court-martial
cases, all matters relating to the
supervision and control of naval
prisons and prisoners [disciplinary
ships and detentioners] ; the removal
of the mark of desertion ; the cor-
rection , of records of service and
reporting thereupon in the Regular
or Volunteer Navy ; certification of
discharge in true name; pardons;
bills and resolutions introduced in
Congress relating to the personnel
and referred to the department for
report, and the drafting and inter-
pretation of statutes relating to the
personnel; references to the Comp-
troller of the Treasury with regard
to pay and allowances of the per-
sonnel : questions involving points of
law concerning the personnel ; pro-
ceedings in the civil courts in all
cases concerning the personnel as
such ; and to conduct the corre-
spondence respecting the foregoing
duties, including the preparation for
submission to the Attorney General
of all questions relating to subjects
coming under his own cognizance
which the Secretary of the Navy
may direct to be so referred."

The study of International Law

53S

OUB COl VI'KY AMi ITS RESOURCES

has also recently been assigned to
the office of the Judge Advocate
General, and he is required to ex-
amine and report upon questions of
international law. Because of the
present European conflict and the
strained relations between this
country and Mexico, many intricate
questions of present moment have
arisen, such as the Interference with
American mail, removal of ex-en-
listed men of the naval service from

American ships, attempts by bellig-
erent ships to board naval auxiliar-
ies, the exercise of visit and search
by them in territorial waters, etc.

The subjects of the treatment of
prisoners <>f war. while under the
jurisdiction of the Navy Depart-
ment, and of belligerent ships and
individuals interned in this country.
and the formulation of regulations
to cover same, have also been
assigned by regulation to this office.

BOARD OF INSPECTION AND SURVEY

The Board of Inspection and Sur-
vey is charged, under specific di-
rections in each ease, with con-
duct Lng preliminary and final ac-
ceptance trials of all naval vessels
as they come from the works of
the builders ; with the survey and
inspection of all naval vessels in
service at least every three years
and at such other times as condi-

tions render such inspections neces-
sary or desirable: with the inspec-
tions of motorboats for coast defense
and patrol purposes. A section of
the Board of Inspection and Sur-
vey, working with certain Army of-
ficers, constitutes a Board for the
Inspection of Merchant Auxiliaries.
The board operates both directly
and through sub-boards.

OFFICE OF THE SOLICITOR

The duties of the Solicitor com-
prise and relate to examination and
report upon questions of law, includ-
ing the drafting and interpretation
of statutes, and matters submitted
to the accounting officers not relat-
ing to the personnel : preparation of
advertisements, proposals, and con-
tract-: insurance; patents; the suf-
ficiency of official, contract, and
other bonds and guaranties; pro-
ceedings in the civil courts by or
against the Government or its offi-
cers in cases relating to material
and not concerning the personnel as
such; claims by or against the Gov-
ernment; questions submitted to the

Attorney General, except such as are
under the cognizance of the Judge
Advocate General : bills and con-
gressional resolutions and inquiries
not relating to the personnel and
not elsewhere assigned : the search-
ing of titles, purchase, sale, trans-
fer, and other questions affecting
lands and buildings pertaining to the
Navy; the care and preservation of
all muniments of title to land ac-
quired for naval uses; and the cor-
respondence respecting the foregoing
duties; and rendering opinion upon
any matter or question of law re-
ferred to him by the Secretary or
Assistant Secretary.

MAJOR GENERAL COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS

Tim Major General Commandant

of the Marine Corps is responsible
to the Secretary of the Navy for the
general efficiency and discipline of

the corps; makes such distribution
of officers and men for duty at the
Several shore stations as shall ap-
pear to him to be most advantageous
for the Interests of the service; fur-
nishes detachments for vessels of
the Navy according to the author-

ized scale of allowance: issues or-
ders for the movement of officers
and troops, and such other orders
and instructions for their guidance
as may be necessary; and has
charge ami exercises general super-
vision and control of the recruiting
service of the corps, and of the
necessary expenses thereof, includ-
ing the establishment of recruiting
stations.

CHAPTER XI.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

SECRETARY OP THE INTERIOR

THE Secretary of the Interior is
charged with the supervision of
public business relating to pat-
ents for inventions, pensions and
bounty lands, the public lands and
surveys, the Indians, education, the
Geological Survey, the Reclamation
Service, the Bureau of Mines, na-
tional parks, distribution of appro-
priations for agricultural and me-
chanical colleges in the States and

Territories and certain hospitals and
eleemosynary institutions in the Dis-
trict of Columbia. By authority of
the President the Secretary of the
Interior has general supervision over
the work of completing the survey
of routes for railroads in the Terri-
tory of Alaska. He also exercises
certain other powers and duties in
relation to the Territories of the
United States.

FIRST ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

In the absence of the Secretary
the First Assistant Secretary be-
comes Acting Secretary. He is espe-
cially charged with supervision of
the business of the General Land
Office, including cases appealed to
the Secretary of the Interior from
decisions of that bureau involving
public lands ; applications for ease-
ments or rights of way for reser-
voirs, ditches, railroads, telephone
and power-transmission lines ; selec-
tions of public lands under grants

made by Congress to aid in the con-
struction of railroads and wagon
roads, for reclamation, and for the
benefit of educational and other pub-
lic institutions, etc. Indian affairs
affecting the disposal of the public
domain are under his supervision.
He considers proposed legislation
pertaining to matters under his ad-
ministration. From time to time
duties in connection with the affairs
of other bureaus of the department
are assigned to him.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

The Assistant Secretary has gen-
eral supervision over all matters
concerning the Indian Office (except
those which relate to the work of
the General Land Office and are for-
warded through that office), the Pat-
ent Office, the Bureau of Mines, the
Pension Office (including appeals
from the decisions of the Commis-
sioner of Pensions), the execution
of contracts and the approval of

vouchers covering expenditures of
money for the eleemosynary insti-
tutions under the Department of the
Interior in the District of Columbia
(including Saint Elizabeth's Hospi-
tal, formerly the Government Hospi-
tal for the Insane), and various
miscellaneous matters over which
the department has jurisdiction. He
also considers proposed legislation
pertaining to the department.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

540

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

ASSISTANT TO THE SECRETARY

This officer is charged with tin
general supervision of matters re-
lating to the eleemosynary institu-
tions under the Department of the

Interior in the District of Columbia,
the Bureau of Education, the na-
tional parks, national monuments,
and tlie Territories.

CHIEF CLERK

As the chief executive officer of
the department and the administra-
tive head of the Office of the Secre-
tary the chief clerk has supervision
over the clerks and other employees
of the department (including the
watch, mechanical and labor forces),
enforces the general regulations of
the department, and is superintend-
ent of the several buildings occu-
pied by the department. lie also
supervises the classification and

compilation of all estimates of ap-
propriations. The detailed work re-
lating to eleemosynary institutions
in the District of Columbia under
the Department of the Interior, the
office of the returns clerk, and mis-
cellaneous matters is done iu his
office. During the absence of the
Secretary and Assistant Secretaries
he may be designated by the Secre-
tary to sign official papers and
documents.

COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS

The Commissioner of Patents is
charged with the administration of
the patent laws, and supervision of
all matters relating to the granting
of letters patent for inventions, and
the registration of trade-marks. lie

is by statute made the tribunal of
last resort in the Patent Office, and
has appellate jurisdiction in the
trial of interference cases, of the

patentability of inventions, and of
registration of trade-marks.

THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON. D. C.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

541

THE PATENT OFFICE'

The duties of the Patent Office
or its functions with respect to
the inventor may be classified un-
der a few heads. Each of these
is of great importance and it is
thought that the simplicity of the
classification may aid somewhat in
understanding fully just what the
Patent Office does for an inventor.

In the first place, it is the keeper
of records, maintaining as it does in
well classified form the patents is-

much of these records as may be
desired by the public.

The registration of trade-marks
and labels and the granting of pat-
ents for designs also come within
the duties of the Patent Office^ as
well as the recordation of assign-
ments and other instruments in writ-
ing affecting the title to patents.

It also maintains among its rec-
ords the pending applications for
patents, which are not open to pub-

INTERIOR VIEW OF THE PATENT OFFICE

sued by the United States, and also
the patents issued by numerous
foreign nations which issue Let-
ters Patent for inventions. Inci-
dentally, it permits the inspection of
these records by inventors or those
acting for them and also furnishes
certified and uncertified copies of so

lie inspection except to the appli-
cant or those acting by his authority,
and forfeited and abandoned appli-
cations which, like the pending ap-
plications, are not open to public
inspection.

The Patent Office also examines
patent applications and determines

* There is a special historical chapter 011 the Patent Office, page 199,

542

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

the propriety of issuing patents on
the same, tliis procedure including
appeals within the Patenl < >ffice
from the Primary Examiners to the
Board of Examiners-in-Chief, thence
to the Commissioner and thence to
the Court of Appeals of the District
of Columbia, the Commissioner in
appeals to the court being repre-
sented usually by one of his law
examiners.

The Patent Office also includes the
court of first resort in interference
cases, thai is to say. cases wherein
two or more inventors are claiming
the same patentable subjeel matter,
and it is for the Patent Otlice to
decide whether patent shall issue to
the applicant whom it may he deter-
mined was lirst to make the inven-
tion. This procedure also contem-
plates appeals to the Board of
Examiners-in-Chief and thence to
the Commissioner and to the Court
• if Appeals.

It is believed that under the fore-
going heads all of the functions of
the Patent Office can be classified.

The course of a patenl application
through the Patent Cilice is ordi-
narily a simple one. The applica-
tion, including the petition, specifica-
tion and oath and drawing and (lie
lirst Government fee of $15, being
deposited with the Financial Clerk.
the application papers and drawings
find their way to the application
room and draftsmen's room, and
when the application is found in
propei- form is forwarded by the
chief of the application room to the
Primary Examiner in whose class
the particular invention is found to
belong. The application is then ex-
amined in the order of its filing in
such Examiner's division, ami if it
lie found in condition for allowance.
or when it is so found, it is trans-
mitted to the Issue Division^ which
iv<ues ;i circular of allowance. Then

if the second Government fee of $20

he paid into the Patent < Hiiro within
six months from the date of allow-
ance of the application, the patenl
will in a few weeks i^siie anil he
forwarded to the applicant or his

attorney. If olvjertions are found to
the application either in form or in
substance, considerable time is in-
volved in many cases in adjusting
these matters to bring the applica-
tion into condition for allowance or
for final rejection.

The Primary Examiner, through
one of his assistants, considers the
application in the lirst instance, and
if it is found allowable by the Pri-
mary Examiner, either in first form
or as amended, the case passes to
the Issue Division without consider-
ation by those higher in authority.
On the other hand, if objections re-
lating to form are found these may
he reviewed by petition to the Com-
missioner direct. If the objections
go to the merits, such for instance
as a rejection on the ground that
the invention is not new in view
of any particular reference cited.
appeal may he taken to the Board
of Examiners-in-Chief. A petition
relating to form involves no Gov-
ernment fee. while a petition affect-
ing the merits and going to the
Board of Examiners-in-Chief calls
for a Government fee of .$10. Such
is the course of a patenl application
when actually tiled.

To aid inventors and their attor
neys in determining the probable
novelty of any particular invention.
the Patent Otlice maintains a Search
Room containing the P. s. patents
classified according to the official
practice and arranged in suitable
stacks or racks so that if the inven-
tion he. for instance, a Nut Lock.
the searcher may secure the bundle
containing patents for such devices,
or if it he a dynamo or a telephone.
he can secure the bundle having the
particular character of such devices
to which the invention he is search-
Lag relates.

The Patent Otlice is not a bureau
of information and does not un-
dertake to answer miscellaneous in-
quiries relative to patents, nor to
express any opinion in advance of
the liliiiL: of a formal application for
patenl as to the patentability of any
particular invention.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

543

COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS

The Pension Bureau, which is
said to be the largest bureau in
the Government service, and the
only bureau which occupies a build-
ing erected for its especial use, is
the active agency through which
there was paid out last year one

There are now on the pension roll
about four hundred thousand males
and three hundred thousand widows.
Death is making sad havoc among
their numbers. Last year there
died, of Civil War soldiers, 34,252;
and of widows, 19,957.

THE PENSION OFFICE

hundred and sixty millions of dol-
lars of pensions to more than seven
hundred thousand pensioners.

At times some magazine article
complains of the amount of pensions,
but it will be noticed by those who
have knowledge of the recent allow-
ances in Canada. Australia and
Great Britain, that the amount paid
to an individual here is less than
that now paid in other countries.
The modern tendency is to care
more for the private soldier. This
is justified by two viewpoints — one
is that he is the most valuable com-
ponent part of an army and should
be kept efficient and encouraged
both by good care of him and of
his family. The other reason is
humanity, which now pays more re-
gard to the humbler member as a
unit of society.

Besides the Commissioner, there
are 1.200 employees transacting the
necessary business of the Pension
Bureau. Applications are not so
numerous as formerly, yet there
were more than sixty-five thousand
received during last year, and 68,549
new certificates were issued. The
total cost of administration was only
1 per cent of the pensions paid out,
which is lower than ever before.
It is believed that, under the present
administration, the pension laws
have been faithfully executed in an
efficient and economic manner.
Every beneficiary has been given
that to which the law entitled him.

An additional pension of .$10 per
month has been allowed to soldiers
and sailors holding medals of honor.

The Act of September 8, 1916, in-
creases from $12 to $20 per month

544

• hi; CO! .\ii:v AND its kksi >ri:< i :s

the widows of Mexican and Civil
War soldiers who are seventj years
of aire. or who were married tn the
soldier during the period of his serv-
ice. Thai act also makes pension-
able widows of Civil War soldiers
who married prior to June U7. 1905,
and certain remarried widows.

Formerly payment to the pen-
sioner was delayed, but now the

cheek is delivered to him on the
c\a<t date when due. Recently
methods have been much simpli-
fied. The expense of executing
vouchers has been eliminated — a
saving to the soldiers themselves of
many thousands of dollars — and
they are no Longer required to ex-
hihit their certificates each time of
indorsement of the check.

COMMISSIONER OP INDIAN AFFAIRS
The Commissioner of Indian Af- Alaska), their education, lands,
fairs has charge Of the Indian tribes moneys, schools, purchase of sup-
of the United states (exclusive of [dies, and general welfare.

COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

The Commissioner of Education
collects statistics and general in-
formation showing the condition and
progress of education, issues an an-
nual report, a bulletin in several
numbers annually, and miscella-
neous publications; has charge of

the schools for the education of
native children in Alaska ; super-
vises the reindeer industry in Alas-
ka, and administers the endowment
fund for the support of colleges for
the benefit of agriculture and me-
chanic arts. See page 255.

UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE*

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY*

GENERAL LAND OFFICE

The General Land Office is the
oldest and in many respects the
largest and most important Bureau
of the 1 teparl menl of the Interior ;
it has jurisdiction over all mat-
ters pertaining tn the survey and
disposition of the public lands of
the United States, exclusive of
lands in the insular possessions;
also, in point of number of cases
and values involved, the General
Land Office, in the determination of
questions with respect to title to
public lands, exercises judicial func-
tions of vast importance. Its Inter-
nal organization consists of the

Washington office, the local United
states land offices, the offices of Sur-
veyors General, the field surveying
organization and the field service1
organization, making a total of
about one hundred and twenty-five
branch offices and headquarters,
principally in the Western States.
This bureau employs altogether
about sixteen hundred people. Con-
trary to popular belief the business
of this department has not decreased
in recent years, ami, owing to new
legislation and change of govern-
mental policies, its work is increas-
ingly complicated and exacting.

NATIONAL l'.l REATJ OF MINES

The National Bureau of Mine-.
under the Departmenl of the In-
ferior, was created i>\ act of Con-
gress, approved May L6 and effec-

tive .lul.\ 1. L910. This act was
amended by an act. effective Feb-
ruary 25, 1913, which provides that
the Bureau of Mines is to be a

*Tlu' wurk of the United States Reclamation Service and of the United Suites
Geological Survey is of such Importance thai special chapters en these subjects

are jjiven in the Brat pan of the i k. See pages st and 119.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

545

bureau of mining, metallurgy and
mineral technology, and that the
duty of the bureau shall be to con-
duct scientific and technologic in-
vestigations concerning mining, and
the preparation, treatment and
utilization of mineral substances
with a view to improving health
conditions and increasing safety,
efficiency and economic development,
and conserving resources through
the prevention of waste in the
mining, quarrying, metallurgical and
other mineral industries ; to inquire
into the economic conditions affect-
ing these industries ; to investigate
explosives and peat; and on behalf
of the Government to investigate the
mineral fuels and unfinished mineral
products belonging to, or for the use
of, the Fnited States, with a view
to their most efficient mining, prep-
aration, treatment and use ; and to
disseminate information concerning
these subjects. The act further pro-
vides that no member of the bureau
shall have any personal or private
interest in any mine or the products
of any mine under investigation, or
shall accept employment from any
private party for services in the ex-
amination of any mine or private
mineral property, or issue any report
as to the valuation or the manage-
ment of any mine or other private
mineral property. This provision,
however, does not apply to the tem-
porary employment in a consulting
capacity of experts whose principal
practice is outside of the bureau.
Another section of the act directs
that a reasonable fee covering neces-
sary expenses shall be charged by
the bureau in making tests other
than those for the Government of
the Fnited States or State govern-
ments.

The inquiries and investigations

being carried on by the bureau un-
der the provisions of this act cover
a wide variety of subjects and are
too numerous to mention here. The
chief experiment station of the bu-
reau is in Pittsburgh, Pa. Work re-
lating to the causes and prevention
of mine explosions, to which the bu-
reau has given special attention,
and other mining problems, includes
laboratory tests, the examination of
mines and experiments in an experi-
mental mine near Pittsburgh under
conditions simulating those of com-
mercial operations.

In order to carry on investiga-
tions and educational work for
greater safety in mining, the Bureau
of Mines has six mine-rescue sta-
tions situated in different mining
regions of the country, and also
operates eight mine-rescue cars and
two rescue trucks. These cars and
trucks, manned by trained crews, are
constantly ready to give aid, when
requested by State officials, at a
mine disaster. The cars move from
point to point in the regions in which
they are stationed, and the crews
demonstrate safe methods of mining
and the use of rescue apparatus and
first-aid appliances.

An act of Congress, approved
March 3, 1915, authorizes the estab-
lishment and maintenance under the
Bureau of Mines of ten mining ex-
periment and seven mine safety sta-
tions (mine rescue cars), in addi-
tion to those already established,
not more than three of each class
of stations to be established in any
one year. It is expected that through
these stations the safety work of the
bureau will be made more effective,
and that the investigations for in-
creasing efficiency in the handling
and utilization of mineral resources
will be enlarged and extended.

Copyright by Munn & < !o.

How Five People Can Live on S8.03 a Week

Actual Supply for a Week of Meat, Groceries, Bread, Etc.

Figures sui>i'li<'<l by Dep't of Health, New York, Nov. 17. lov;

THE BALANCED RATION

CHAPTEK XII.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE*

SECRETARY OP AGRICULTURE

THE Secretary of Agriculture is supervision and control over the af-

charged with the work of pro- fairs of the department and formu-

moting agriculture in its broad- lates and establishes the general

est sense. He exercises general policies to be pursued.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE

The Assistant Secretary of Agri- assists in the general supervision of
culture becomes Acting Secretary in the work of the department at all
the absence of the Secretary and times.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk has general super- buildings, etc. He is responsible for

vision of clerks and employees ; of the enforcement of the general regu-

the records and correspondence of lations of the department and is

the Secretary's office; and of ex- custodian of the buildings occupied

penditures from appropriations for by the department in the city of

miscellaneous expenses, rent of Washington.

SOLICITOR

The solicitor is charged by law department, conducts its legal work,

(act of May 26, 1910) with the direc- and represents it in all legal mat-

tion of the' legal work of the depart- ters. He approves, in advance of

ment. Accordingly, he acts as legal issue, all orders and regulations

adviser to the Secretary and the promulgated by the Secretary under

heads of the several branches of the statutory authority.

OFFICE OF FARM MANAGEMENT

This office studies the details of types of farming prevailing in the

farm practice. Its main object is various sections of the country are

to improve farm practice by intro- being studied in a number of locali-

ducing better business methods and ties, and a detailed study of farm

by applying the principles of sci- economics and business principles is

ence wherever they are known. The being made.

*There is a special chapter on "Agriculture," page 37.
Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

54S

01 ft COl NTKY AM) ITS ftfiSOl ft( I -

APPOINTMENT CLERK

The appointment clerk prepares
nil papers connected with appoint
incuts, transfers, promotions, reduc-
tions, details, furloughs, and reniov-
als, and has charge of correspond-

ence with the Civil Service Commis-
sion. He is the custodian of oaths
of office nnd personal reports. He
hns the custody and use of the
department seal.

SUPPLY PIYISIoX

The chief of the supply division
purchases and distributes stationery
and miscellaneous supplies and dis-

poses of property turned in by the
various offices when it is of no fur-
ther use to them.

OFFICE OF EXHIBITS

The office of exhibits handles the
correspondence of the department
relative to exhibits at fairs and ex-
positions of various kinds; co-oper-
ates with the several branches of

the department in preparing exposi-
tion materia] : ships, installs, and
cares for such exhibits; and investi-
gates methods of displaying them to
best advantage.

OFFICE OF INFORMATION

The office of information is estab-
lished to secure the widest possible
circulation for the discoveries and
recommendations of the scientists
and field workers of the department.
It gives out to the public press facts

taken from publications and also is published.

from oral statements of specialists.
Material so disseminated is set forth
in such form as to attract attention
and lead to the adoption of the
methods recommended. A Weekly
News Letter to Crop Correspondents

This officer
Secretary of

FOREST APPEALS

invest [gates

Agriculture

for the
appeals

from decisions of the Forest Service
and reports to the Secretary.

UNITED STATICS WEATHER BUREAU
By C. F. MARVIN

CHIEF T. s. WEATHElt IHUEAU

Till"; history of the Weather
Bureau as an organization be-
gins with the passage of the
act of Congress, approved February
P. 1870, which authorized and re-
quired the Secretary of War to pro-
vide for the taking of meteorological
observations throughout the United
states and for giving telegraphic
notice on the takes and seacoast of
the approach of storms. Since its
establishment the scope of its work
has been gradually extended until
now its functions as defined by law
embrace the forecasting of the
weather; I be Issue of storm warn-

ings; the display of weather, frost
and flood signals for the benefit of
agriculture, commerce and naviga-
tion: the gaging and reporting of

rivers; the maintenance and opera-
tion of seacoast telegraph lines and
the collection and transmission of
marine intelligence for the benefit
of commerce and navigation; the re-
porting of temperature and rainfall
conditions for the cotton interests,
and the taking of such meteorologi-
cal observations as may be neces-
sary to establish and record the cli-
matic conditions of the Tinted
Stales, or are essential for the prop-

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

549

er execution of the foregoing duties.
From the date of its organization
until July 1, 1S91, the weather ser-
vice was conducted as a branch of
the Signal Corps, under the direc-
tion of the Chief Signal Officer of
the Army, but on the date mentioned
it was transferred to the Depart-
ments of Agriculture and made a bu-
reau of that Department, under its
present designation.

The Weather Bureau is probably
best known to the general public

sphere. The results of the twice-
daily observations are immediately
telegraphed to the Central Office at
Washington, D. C, where they are
charted for study and interpretation
by experts trained to forecast weath-
er conditions which may be expected
to prevail during the following
thirty-six to forty-eight hours. From
these data the forecaster, by com-
parison with preceding reports, is
able to trace the paths of storm
areas from the time of their appear-

CENTRAL OFFICE OF THE U. S. WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C.

through the exercise of its principal
and most important function, the is-
sue of the daily weather forecasts.
These forecasts are based upon
simultaneous observations of local
weather conditions taken daily at
8 A. M. and 8 P. M., 75th meridian
time, at about two hundred regular
observing stations scattered through-
out the United States and the West
Indies, and upon similar reports re-
ceived daily from various points in
other parts of the northern hemi-

anee to the moment of observation,
and approximately determine and
forecast their subsequent courses
and the resultant weather conditions.
Forecast centers have also been
established at Chicago, 111. ; New
Orleans. La. ; Denver, Colo. ; San
Francisco, Cal. ; and Portland, Ore.
Within two hours after the morning
observations have been taken the
forecasts are telegraphed from the
forecast centers to about 1,700 prin-
cipal distributing points, whence

550

01 R COUNTRY AM) ITS RESOURCES

they arc further disseminated by
telegraph, telephone and mail. The

forecasts reach nearly 100,000 ad-
dresses daily by mail, the greater
part being delivered early in the
day. and none later, as a rule, than
6 P. M. of the day of issue, and are
available to more than r».000,000 tel-
ephone subscribers within an hour
of the time of issue. This system
of forecast distribution is wholly un-
der the supervision and mainly at
the expense of the Government, and
is in addition to and distinct from
the distribution effected through the
press associations and the daily
newspapers. The rural free mail de-
livery system and rural telephone
lines are also being utilized to bring
within the benefits of this system
a large number of farming com-
munities. A careful comparison of
the forecasts with the weather con-
ditions occurring over the regions
and during the periods covered
shows that approximately ninety
per cent of the forecasts are veri-
fied.

The daily weather maps, based on
the data contained in the morning
telegraphic reports, are issued as
soon as practicable after these re-
ports .-ire received. On these maps
the salient features of the current
weather conditions throughout the
country are graphically represented.
accompanied by a synopsis of these
conditions; in addition to which
complete reports from all the ob-
serving stations are presented in tab-
ulated form. In order that all sec-
tions of the country may receive
weather data, maps or bulletins con-
taining the data in tabulated form,
are Issued from about one hundred
of i be larger stal ions.

Tl cean meteorological service

aims to collect, through the co-opera-
tion of vessel masters and others,
meteorological observations at sea.
The recent development in the ait of
radio-telegraphy has made possible
the transmission of meteorological
observations made by ships at sea
to shore stations, thence by land

lines to a central meteorological
service. The Weather Bureau has
organized a system of meteorological
observations on vessels navigating

the coastal water- of the middle and

South Atlantic States, the Gulf of

Mexico, .-mil the Caribbean Sea. the

primary object being to gain infor-
mation of sub-tropical storms which
occasionally traverse the waters
above named. Distribution of weath-

MARVIN ELECTRICAL SUNSHINE
RECORDER

er Information, forecasts, and warn-
ings is made daily by radio service
through the co-operation of the radio

service of the I t i i t c -« ] State- Navy.

Although the two hundred regu-
lar observing station-, each repre-
senting about 16,000 square miles of
territory. furnish sufficienl data

upon which to base the various fore-
casts, observations at many inter-
mediate points are necessary before

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

551

the climatology of the United States
can be properly studied. This need
has given rise to the establishment
of an important and interesting fea-
ture of the Weather Bureau in its
Climatologieal Service. This service
is divided into forty-four local sec-
tions, each, as a rule, covering a
single State, and having for its cen-
ter a regular observing station.
These centers collect temperature
and rainfall observations from more
than 4,000 co-operative stations and
publish these data in the form of
monthly reports which are given a
widespread distribution. During
the growing season (from April to
September, inclusive) each section
also receives mail reports from nu-
merous correspondents (aggregating
for all sections about 7,500) con-
cerning the effects of the weather
upon crops and farming operations,
these reports being used to compile
data for weekly bulletins. During
the same season the Central Office
at Washington issues a National
Weather and Crop Bulletin contain-
ing a series of charts graphically
illustrating current and normal con-
ditions of temperature and rainfall
for the entire country, a general
summary of the weather, and brief
reports on the condition of the crops
for each State. Throughout the cot-
ton, corn, wheat, sugar and rice pro-
ducing sections designated centers
receive telegraphic reports of rain-
fall and daily extremes of tempera-
ture from nearby points for publi-
cation in bulletin form, each local
center receiving condensed reports
from all others.

By the assistance of several thou-
sand co-operative observers, many of
whom have maintained local records
for long periods, the Weather Bu-
reau endeavors to collect special lo-
cal data and thus perfect the records
that are needed for the study of the
relation between climate and agri-
culture, forestry, water resources,
and other kindred subjects. The re-
sults of these observations appear in
detail in monthly and annual re-

ports published at the respective sec-
tion centers.

A division of the bureau, known
as the Division of Agricultural
Meteorology, has for its lines of
work the application of meteorology
to the needs and interests of agri-
culture; conducting studies of mete-
orological and climatic conditions in
their relation to agriculture and the
growth and yield of crops; conduct-
ing investigations of the effect of

THERMOMETER SHELTER AND RAIN

GAGE

(Outfit of a "Co-operative Observer")

weather and climate upon plant
growth ; determination of the dis-
tribution of frost warnings and fore-
casts to special agricultural inte-
rests ; conducting studies for the pro-
tection of crops and orchards from
frosts, and distributing information
as to the effect of the weather and
climate on crops, through the medi-
um of the National Weather and
Crop Bulletin and other publications.
Among the publications of the
Weather Bureau, the following are
worthy of special notice:

552

HI I! COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

MAKVIN METEOROGRAPH SENT ALOFT

WITH A KITE FOR UPPER-AIR

INVESTIGATIONS

The Monthly Weather Review,
which has been published regularly
since January, 1^7.'!. and which eon-
tains elaborate meteorological tables
and charts showing the weather con-
ditions for the month over the
United States and neighboring coun-
tries.

The reports of the sections of the
Climate and Crop Service, showing
in detail the climatic conditions of
tlic month.

The Weekly Weather and Crop
Bulletin, which gives in detail the
weather conditions that have pre-
vailed throughout the country dur-
ing the week and its effects upon
the crops.

The occasional bulletins, now num-
bering about seventy, containing the
larger reports made by the experts
of the service.

The library of the Weather Bu-
reau contains about 32,000 books
and pamphlets, consisting principally
of technical books on meteorology
and allied science's, and of published
climatological data from all parts
..I I be world. It is available to all
Weather Bureau Officials and to stu-
dents of meteorology generally, who
either consult it personally or
through correspondence. In addition
to Its general card catalogue, it
keeps up to date a catalogue of the
meteorological contents of the prin-
cipal scientific serials of ihe world.

The Annual Report of the Chief
of Bureau presents a full summary
of climatic data for the United
States.

The apparatus used at Weather
Bureau stations for recording weath-
er conditions is largely the result of
improvements devised by the In-
strument Division, to which is in-
trusted the care of all standards.
The kites, meteorographs, self-regis-
tering instruments, and other forms
of apparatus devised by the Weather
B u r e a u a r e favorably known
throughout the world.

The Bureau has a force of scien-
tists and trained employees engaged
in research work in connection with
upper air conditions and solar radia-
tion and investigations in seismol-
ogy.

The extent to which the work of
the Weather Bureau, in the collec-
tion and publication of data and the
issue of weather forecasts and warn-
ings, affects the daily life of the
people and becomes a factor in their
various avocations and business en-
terprises, already very great, is in-
creasing yearly.

The uses made of the daily fore-
casts are so numerous and well
known as to call for no remark, but
the value to the manifold business
interests of the country of the pub-
lication of weather data and the
dissemination of warnings of excep-
tionally severe and injurious weath-
er conditions, such as storms and
hurricanes, cold waves, frosts, floods.
heavy rains and snows, is not so
generally understood. Of the warn-
ings mentioned, those of storms and
hurricanes, issued for the benefit of
marine interests, are the most Im-
portant and pecuniarily valuable.
Storm warnings are displayed at
nearly .".00 points along the Atlantic.
Pacific and Gulf coasts and the
shores of the Great Lakes, including
every port and harbor of any con-
siderable Importance; and so nearly
perfect has this service become that
scarcely a storm of marked danger
to maritime Interests has occurred

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

553

Photo Harris & Ewing
FORECASTING THE WEATHER AT THE WEATHER BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C.

for years for which ample warnings
have not been issued from twelve
to twenty-four hours in advance.
The sailings of the immense number
of vessels engaged in our ocean and
lake traffic are largely determined
by these warnings, and those dis-
played for a single hurricane are
known to have detained in port on
our Atlantic coast vessels valued,
with their cargoes, at over $30,-
000,000.

The warnings of those sudden and
destructive temperature changes
known as cold waves are probably
next in importance. These warnings,
which are issued from twenty-four
to thirty-six hours in advance, are
disseminated throughout the threat-
ened regions by means of flags dis-
played on regular Weather Bureau
and sub-display stations, by tele-
graph, telephone, and mail service to
all places receiving daily forecasts,
and to a large number of special
addresses in addition. The beneficial

results of these warnings are mani-
fold. Precautions are taken for the
safeguarding of personal comfort
and health, and the protection from
freezing of produce of all kinds,
steam and water pipes, hot house
plants, and flowers. Railroads regu-
late the size and movement of their
freight trains, ice men prepare for
harvesting, and many plans for busi-
ness and pleasure are made on the
expectation of the conditions fore-
cast. The warnings issued in Janu-
ary, 1S96, for a single cold wave of
exceptional severity and extent, re-
sulted, according to reports, in the
saving of over $3,500,000 in the pro-
tection of property from injury or
destruction.

The warnings of frost and freez-
ing weather are also of immense
value, particularly to the fruit,
sugar, tobacco, cranberry and mar-
ket gardening interests. The early
truck raising industry, so extensive-
ly carried on in the regions border-

55 l

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

WEATHER BUREAU STATION OF THE
■OBSERVATORY" TYPE AT PEORIA

ing on the Gulf and South Atlantic
coasts, and in Florida, and which
has increased so greatly in the lasl
lew years, is largely dependent for
its success on the co-operation of
the Weather Bureau in this particu-
lar, and the growers of citrus and
other fruits liable to injury by
frosts or freezing weather have in-
rested large sums in tents, screens.
heating, smudging, and irrigating ap-
paratus for the protection of their
groves and orchards, which they put
into use when notified by the bureau
of the expected occurrence of in-
juriously low temperatures.

The commerce of our rivers is
greatly aided and lives and property
in regions subject to overflow arc
protected by the publication of the
river stages and the issue of river
and flood forecasts based on reports
received from about five hundred
special river and rainfall star
< >n the occasion of the flood of L897
in the lower Mississippi Valley live
stock and other movable property
to the estimated value of about

$15, was removed from the

inundated regions prioj t<» the flood,
as a rt suit of the warnings by the
bureau a week in advance of its
occurrence.

In the raisin-growing districts of
California rain forecasts arc of
great value. The raisin crop while
growing is extremely susceptible to
injurs from rain, and the warnings

enable the producers to protect the
fruit by stacking and covering the
frays. The accuracy of the rain fore-
casts for this region and the system
for their distribution have been such
that practically no loss from this
cause has occurred for years.

Shippers of perishable produce

and g Is liable t<> injury by licit

or cold are guided largely by the
weather reports in making ship-
ments and in directing their move-
ments while on the road. Large
dealers in produce, by careful atten-
tion to the daily reports anil the
weekly crop bulletins, inform them-
selves as to the regions where con-
ditions most favorable for certain
crops have occurred, and are thus
enabled to judge of the probable sup-
ply and purchase t<> advantage. Con-
structors of waterworks, bridges,
culverts, and sewers consult the rain-
fall records to ascertain the maxi-
mum water flow they will have to
allow for. Architects of iron and
steel structures and tall buildings
study the records of maximum and
minimum temperatures and wind
velocity, in order to estimate the
contraction and expansion and
amount of wind pressure their build-
ings must he prepared to withstand.

From the information as to clima-
tic conditions made known through
flu1 reports, invalids and tourists are
enabled to select the locations besl
suited to their health and pleasure,
and manufacturers and agricultur-
ists the regions host adapted for the
carrying on ,,f their particular in-
dustries. By the recent expansion of

STREET WEATHER MAP, ATLANTIC
CITY, N. J.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

the system of snowfall observations
throughout the mountain regions ad-
jacent to the Great Plains, it has
been made possible to forecast the
probable flow in the rivers of the
arid regions, a factor of great im-
portance in irrigation. The records
of the bureau are of frequent use
as evidence in courts of law. for
which purpose they have been de-
cided competent evidence by the Su-
preme Court of the United States.
The conduct of the regular sta-
tions of observations outside of

Washington requires the constant
services of about six hundred, and
the business of the Central Office at
Washington of about two hundred
employees. The annual disburse-
ments of the bureau amount to about
.$1,600,000.

The numerous offices of the bureau
throughout the country are always
open during business hours and the
public are cordially invited to visit
them and avail themselves of the
information contained in the records
there on file.

BUREAU (>F ANIMAL INDUSTRY

The Bureau of Animal Industry
has charge of the work of the de-
partment relating to the live-stock
industry. In general it deals with
the investigation, control, and eradi-

cation of diseases of animals, the in-
spection and quarantine of live
stock, the inspection of meat and
meat food products, and with animal
husbandry and dairying.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

The Bureau of Plant Industry stu-
dies plant life in all its relations to
agriculture. The scientific work of
the bureau is divided into twenty-
seven distinct groups, over each of
which is placed a scientifically
trained officer, who reports directly
to the chief and assistant chief of

the bureau. The work of the bureau
is conducted on the project plan, the
investigations under each of the
offices being arranged by group pro-
jects consisting of closely related
lines of work, which group of
projects are still further divided
into projects.

THE WORK OF THE FOREST SERVICE"

The Forest Service is charged
with the administration and pro-
tection of the 152 National forests.
These forests comprise over 155
million acres of land, have an esti-
mated stand of 600 billion board
feet of timber, supply range for
14 million head of livestock, and
contain water power valued at about
.$200,000,000. In addition to caring
for the National forests, the Forest
Service conducts investigations of
improved methods of utilizing and
marketing all classes of forest prod-
ucts : carries on studies to determine
possible uses for wood waste, and

co-operates with private individuals
and corporations in solving prob-
lems relative to the use of wood in
general. Under the provisions of
the Weeks Law, the Forest Service
examines lands in the Southern Ap-
palachian and White Mountain re-
gions which are offered for sale to
the Government and protects and ad-
ministers such lands after their pur-
chase, in addition to co-operating
with various States in forest fire
protection. Finally, information in
regard to the relation of forests to
the general welfare is collecied and
disseminated.

*This subject is so important that a special illustrated chapter will be found
in the first part of this book. See page 75.

556

(•I R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Bl KEAU OF CHEMISTRY
The Bureau of Chemistry is con-
cerned with analytical work ami in-
vestigation under the food and drills
act, questions of agricultural chem-

istry of public interest, and other
chemical investigations referred to
it by the department of Agricul-
ture.

BUREAU OP SOILS

The Bureau of Soils investigates

he relation of soils to climate and

organic life; studies the texture

and composition of soils in field and

laboratory; maps the soils; studies

the cause and means of preventing
the rise of alkali in soils of irri-
gated areas, and the relation of
soils to seepage and drainage con-
ditions.

SOIL FERTILIZER INVESTIGATIONS

PLANT HOUSE

BUREAU OF

The Bureau of Entomology
studies insects; experiments with
the introduction into the United
States of beneficial insects; makes

tests with insecticides and insecti-
cide machinery; identities insects
sent in by inquirers. It is prac-
tically solely a research organization

ami studies the insects which are

ENTOMOLOGY

injurious to various crops and do-
mestic animals, and to man himself,
in the hope of learning the cheapest
and most effective remedies and pre-
ventives. It expends an annual
appropriation of about $s.">i».fi00. and
employs some six hundred men,
more than two hundred of whom are
scientifically trained.

Bl REAU OP BIOLOGICAL SURVEY

The work of the Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey is distributed among
four divisions, dealing with the fol-
lowing matters: (1) Study of
birds and mammals in their rela-
tion to agriculture, their food hab-
its, etc.. and recommendation ol
measures for the preservation of ben-
eficial species and the destruction of

harmful species, also experiments in

fur farming; (2) making biological
surveys, study of geographic distri-
bution of animals and plants, and
mapping natural life zones; (3) car-
rying into effect the Federal lnws
protecting game and regulating the
importation of foreign birds and
animals; and (4) general super-
vision of tiie Federal migratory

bird law.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

557

SPRAYING TREES IS A GREAT HELP TO THE FARMER

DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

This division has charge of the
disbursement of public funds ap-

propriated for the Department of
Agriculture.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS

The Division of Publications con-
ducts all business of the depart-
ment transacted with the Govern-
ment Printing Office ; has general

supervision of the printing, index-
ing, binding, and distribution of
publications, and the maintenance
of mailing lists.

BUREAU OF CROP ESTIMATES

The Bureau of Crop Estimates
issues the monthly crop reports
based on data collected by sal-
aried field agents and a corps of
approximately 150,000 voluntary
crop reporters, every State, coun-
ty and agricultural township being
represented. The monthly crop re-
ports contain annual estimates of
numbers of different classes of live
stock on farms and losses due to
disease and exposure, annual esti-
mates of acreage planted and acre-
age harvested of the principal crops,
monthly reports of the condition of

about sixty different crops during
the growing season, monthly fore-
casts of yields per acre and total
production, monthly reports of farm
prices of all crops and classes of
live stock, and in December esti-
mates of total production of all the
principal crops. The monthly re-
ports of condition and forecasts of
production are issued to the press
associations in Washington and tele-
graphed to the Weather Bureau Sta-
tion Directors in all the States for
prompt dissemination to the local
press, and at the close of the year

558

f>[ i: COl \'l'i;V AND ITS RESOURCES

annual estimates of crop ami live
stock production are published in
the Yearbook of the Department.
The bureau ;ilsu furnishes estimates

timates for all adhering countries,
which are issued i<> the press
through the Office of Information.
The bureau compiles statistics and

HOW A WELL PACKED AND A POORLY PACKED BASKET
OF LETTUCE ARRIVED AT MARKET

of the United States crops to the
International institute of Agricul-
ture at Rome, Italy, and in return
receives from the Institute crop es-

furnishes information relating to the
agriculture of the United states and
foreign countries in response to
special inquiries.

LIBRARY

The department library contains
137,000 hunks and pamphlets, includ-
ing an extensive collection <>n agri-
culture, a large and representative

standard reference books. Periodi-
cals currently received number 2,337
A dictionary catalogue is kept on

cards, which number about 325,000.

collection on the sciences related to The librarian has charge of the
agriculture, and a good collection of foreign mailing lists.

STATES RELATIONS SERVICE

The states Relations Service of
the United states Departmenl of
Agriculture administers the Hatch
and Adams acts providing Feder-
al aid for the state agricultural
experiment stations and the Smith-
Lever act providing for co-opera-
tive extension work in agriculture
and home economics. It also has
charge of the farmers' co-opera-
tive demonstration work conducted
by the Department of Agriculture,

makes investigations relating to
agricultural schools, farmers' in-
stitutes, and home economics, and
directs the work of the agricultural
experiment stations in Alaska. Ha-
waii. Porto Rico ami Guam. The
service issues Kxperinienl Station
Record, a periodical technical re-
view of the world's scientific litera-
ture pertaining to agriculture be-
sides various publications relating
to its special lines of work.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

559

OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING*

The Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering has charge of
all work within the Department
of Agriculture which is of an ag-
ricultural nature involving engi-
neering or mechanical principles, to-
gether with the supervision of all
road work under the Federal Aid
Road Act. For carrying out this
work the office is divided into two
main branches, known respectively
as (1) Management and Economics,
(2) Engineering, and these are sub-
divided into lines of work as fol-
lows : Management ; Engineering
Economics ; Road Materials Tests
and Research ; Highway Construc-
tion and Maintenance ; Irrigation ;
Drainage; Rural Engineering. For
convenience in Federal Aid road
work ten field districts have been
established, and in addition to the
general organization there are two
general inspectors who report to the
director of the office. With regard
to character the work may, however,
be more conveniently grouped into
three general classes, as follows:
(1) Education or extension ; (2) in-
vestigations or research; and (3)
the supervision of the road work
under the Federal Aid Road Act,
the administration of which was
placed by Congress under the Sec-
retary of Agriculture.

The educational or extension work
includes reaching the people by
means of lectures, addresses, the
publication of bulletins, the exhibi-
tion of models, etc., and thus teach-
ing the economic value of science
and experience in the improvement
and care of roads, the necessity and
the methods for obtaining adequate
land drainage, the economic impor-
tance of farm irrigation and practi-
cal methods, the meaning and pos-
sibilities of modern farm conveni-
ences, not for the farm only, but also
for the farm home, and the intelli-
gent utilization of farm equipment
and machinery.

Special advice and assistance is
also frequently given where the
problems to be solved involve a
knowledge of community and co-op-
erative administration and of meth-
ods for planning and financing such
works as a better system of roads
or the irrigation or drainage of a
district. Here the questions are
specific rather than general and the
lecturer gives way to the engineer.
Not infrequently the assistance takes
the form of an actual demonstration
of construction under Government
supervision. In fact, the office then
becomes practically an object lesson
school for road construction, the
proper methods of farm irrigation
or land drainage.

The research and experimental
work of the office has become ex-
ceedingly important and varied by
reason of the many problems, not
only in road construction and main-
tenance to which modern traffic con-
ditions have given rise, but also in
connection with the drainage and ir-
rigation of agricultural lands and in
the development of the various struc-
tures, appliances and equipment
necessary for adequately conducting
farm operations. Proper co-ordina-
tion between the investigations con-
ducted in the laboratories and the
results obtained from field experi-
ments and actual practice is con-
stantly sought, and the laboratories
have been specially equipped so as
to further this object.

Under the Federal Aid Road Act
of July 11, 1916, the Secretary of
Agriculture is authorized to co-op-
erate with the States through their
respective State highway depart-
ments in the construction and im-
provement of rural post roads. The
act provides for a comprehensive
program extending over a period of
five years, with an appropriation of
$5,000,000 for the fiscal year 1917,
and increasing annually by $5.-
000.000 to $25,000,000 for the fiscal

*The subject of "Good Roads" forms a chapter. See page 103.

500

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES

year 1921. The appropriations are
apportioned to the several states on
the basis <if population, area, and
mileage of rural free delivery and
star routes, each factor having a
weight of one-third. The amount ap-
portioned by the Federal Govern-

ment must be at least duplicated by
the State. The same act also pro-
vides for an annual appropriation of
$1,000,000 for a period of ten years
for the construction of roads and
trails within or partly within the
national forest reserves.

OFFICE OF MARKETS AND RURAL ORGANIZATION

This office secures and distrib-
utes information regarding the mar-
keting and distributing of farm
and non-manufactured food prod-
ucts. It conducts a demonstration
telegraphic market news service re-
garding fruits and vegetables, and

selves in matters of rural market-
ing, credit, insurance, and communi-
cation. It co-operates with various
states in conducting marketing In-
vestigations. Under authority given
to the Secretary of Agriculture by
law it is responsible to him for the

COMBINATION PACKAGE FOR POSTAL DELIVERY OF EGGS.
BUTTER AND CELERY OR CHICKENS

a service by mail concerning the
commercial surpluses of some other
less perishable crops, it is begin-
ning a similar service upon live
stock and meats. Cooperation
among farmers is studied, with a
view to helping them to help them-

proper enforcement of the United
States Cotton Futures Act and the
Warehouse Act, and in CO-operation
with the Bureau of Plant Industry
of the enforcement of the drain
Standards Act. This office is being
appreciated.

CHAPTER XIII.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

THE Secretary of Commerce is
charged with the work of pro-
moting the commerce of the
United States and its mining, man-
ufacturing, shipping, fishery, and
transportation interests. His duties
also comprise the administration of
the Lighthouse Service and the aid
and protection to shipping thereby ;
the taking of the census and the col-

control of the Alaskan fur-seal,
salmon, and other fisheries ; the ju-
risdiction over merchant vessels,
their registry, licensing, measure-
ment, entry, clearance, transfers,
movement of their cargoes and pas-
sengers, and laws relating thereto,
and to seamen of the United States ;
the regulation of the enforcement
and execution of the act of Congress

Photo Browu & Dawson
THE MIGHTY

'IMPERATOR" STEAMING PAST THE GREATEST
CREATIONS ON LAND

lection and publication of statistical
information connected therewith ;
the making of coast and geodetic sur-
veys; the collecting of statistics re-
lating to foreign and domestic com-
merce; the inspection of steamboats,
and the enforcement of laws relating
thereto for the protection of life and
property : the supervision of the fish-
eries as administered by the Federal
Government ; the supervision and

relating to the equipment of ocean
steamers with apparatus and opera-
tors for wireless communication ; the
custody, construction, maintenance,
and application of standards of
weights and measurements ; the
gathering and supplying of informa-
tion regarding industries and mar-
kets for the fostering of manufac-
turing; and the formulation (in con-
junction with the Secretaries of Ag-

Copyright by Mnnn & Co., Inc.

5G2

01 I; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

riculture and the Treasury) of regu-
lations for the enforcement of the
food and drugs acl of L906 and the
Insecticide act of 1910. He has
power to call upon other depart-
ments for statistical data obtained
by them.

For the proper accomplishment
of any or all of the aforesaid
work it is by law provided that
all duties performed, and all the
powers and authority possessed
or exercised, at the date of the
creatiou of said department, by
the head of any executive depart-
ment in and over any bureau, office,
officer, board, branch, or division of
the public service transferred to said
department, or any business arising
therefrom or pertaining thereto, or

in relation to the duties and autho-
rity conferred by law upon such
bureau, office, officer, board, branch,
or division of the public service,
whether of appellate or advisory
character or otherwise, are vested in
and exercised by the Secretary of
Commerce.

The act creating the Department
of Labor, approved March 4, 1913.
changed the name of the Departmeni
of Commerce and Labor to the De-
partment of Commerce. Under the
terms of this act the Bureau of La-
bor, Bureau of Immigration, Divi-
sion of Naturalization, and Chil-
dren's Bureau were detached from
the Department of Commerce and
Labor and organized as the new De-
partment of Labor.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

The Assistant Secretary performs such
duties as shall be prescribed from time
to time by the Secretary or may be

required by law. In the absence of
the Secretary he acts as head of the
department.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk is charged with the
general supervision of the clerks and
employees of the department: the en-
forcement of tin' general regulations of
the department : the superintendency of
all buildings occupied by the department
in tlie District of Columbia; the sen-
era! supervision of all expenditures from

the appropriations for contingent ex-
penses and rents: the receipt, distribu
tion, and transmission of the mail : the
supervision of the library and the stock
and shipping section of the department ;
and the discharge of all business of the
office of the Secretary not otherwise
assigned.

DISBURSING CLERK

The disbursing clerk is charged by the

Secretary of Commerce with the duty of
preparing .ill requisitions fin- the ad
trance of public' funds from appropria-
tions for the Department of Commerce
io disbursing clerks ami special dis-
bursing agents charged with the dis
bursement of public funds; the keeping
of appropriation ledgers relating to the
advance and expenditure of all items of
appropriations, lie has charge of the

issuing, recording, and accounting for
Government requests for transportation
issued to officers of the depa rt men t for
official travel: the audit and payment
of all vouchers and accounts submitted
from the various offices, bureaus, and
services of the department (except the
t'oast and Geodetic Survey and those
services having special disbursing
agents) : ami the general accounting of
the department.

U'l'olNTMKNT DIVISION

The Chief of the Appointment Division
Is charged by the Secretary of Commerce
with the supervision of matters relating
to appointments, transfers, promotion-.
reductions, removals, and all other
changes In the personnel. Including ap
plications for positions and recommen
dations concerning the same, and the
correspondence connected therewith : the

preparation and submission to the Sec
retary of all material for the Official
Register, and the custody of oaths of
other, records pertaining to official bonds.
service records of officers and employees,
correspondence and reports relating to
personnel, reports of bureau officers
respecting efficiency of employees, and
records relating to leaves of absence

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

563

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS

The Chief of the Division of Publi-
cations is charged by the Secretary of
Commerce with the conduct of all busi-
ness the department transacts with the
Government Printing Office ; the general
supervision of printing, including the
editing and preparation of copy, illus-

trating and binding, the distribution of
publications, and the maintenance of
mailing lists. The advertising done by
the department is in his charge. He also
keeps a record of all expenditures for
publishing work of the department and
conducts the correspondence it entails.

DIVISION OF SUPPLIES

Under the direction of the chief clerk
the Chief of the Division of Supplies has
personal supervision of all the work in-
cident to the purchase and distribution
of supplies for the department proper
and for the services of the department
outside of Washington, and of the keep-
ing of detailed accounts of all expendi-
tures from the appropriation for con-

tingent expenses of the department. He
receives, verifies, and preserves the semi-
annual returns of property from the
offices and bureaus of the department
which are supplied from the contingent
appropriation, and examines and reports
on the semi-annual property returns of
all other bureaus and services of the
department.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE*

The Bureau of Foreign and Do-
mestic Commerce is concerned pri-
marily with the collection of infor-
mation concerning foreign markets
and the dissemination of this infor-
mation for the use and benefit of
American commercial interests. For
the collection of information the
bureau depends chiefly upon the
American consular service, upon the
ten commercial attaches appointed
by the bureau, and upon a corps of
fifteen to twenty-five traveling spe-
cial agents.

The consuls submit reports to the
State Department on a variety of
commercial subjects, and once a
year prepare a review of the com-
mercial and industrial activities of
the district to which they are as-
signed. These reports are turned
over to the Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce for publication.

There are commercial attaches at
London, Paris, Berlin, Petrograd,
Peking, Melbourne, Rio de Janeiro,
Buenos Aires, Lima, and Santiago
(Chile). They are attached to the
embassies or legations, but confine
their attention to commercial affairs.
They have been termed "business
diplomats" and "ambassadors of in-
dustry." This service has recently
completed a world-wide survey of

the markets for American hardware,
the first that has ever been made.

The special agents are specialists.
If it is desired to learn the possibil-
ities of selling boots and shoes in
South America, for instance, a man
is selected by examination who
knows the business thoroughly, who
can speak Spanish fluently, and who
can report well what he learns. This
man is then sent to South American
countries to spend a year or two
studying the subject. Since the war
started the activities of the special
agents have been largely centered in
South America and the Far East.

The information gathered by the
consuls, attaches and agents is dis-
tributed from the central office at
Washington. The shorter current
reports are published in the daily
"Commerce Reports," which has a
paid circulation of nearly 10,000.
The longer and more specialized re-
ports are published in the form of
monographs, ranging in length from
16 to 500 pages. There are books of
this kind on the cotton-goods mar-
kets of nearly every country in the
world. The reports of the attaches
on the hardware markets are being
published in this form. Specific op-
portunities to secure foreign busi-
ness are published as "Trade Oppor-

*See page 2,31 for "The Recent Development of American Commerce," by Secre-
tary Redfield, and "Commercial and Industrial Preparedness," by Dr. E. E. Pratt,
Chief of the Bureau, page 245.

564

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

trinities," on the hack page of "Com-
merce Reports," with oames and ad-
dresses omitted. The information
withheld can be obtained by any
American firm of known standing
ii] >< hi application to the bureau.
Hundreds of thousands of dollars
rili of business is brought to the
Lted states in this manner. Upon
asion special bulletins are sent to
.manufacturers and exporters.

To facilitate the distribution of
trade information the bureau has re-
cently established district offices at
New York. Boston, Atlanta. Chicago,
St. Louis, New Orleans. San Fran-
cisco, and Seattle. What are termed
"co-operative offices" have been es-

tablished at Philadelphia. Chatta-
DOOga, Cincinnati. Cleveland. Los
Angeles and Portland. Ore. These
co-operative offices are in reality for-
eign-trade departments of the local
chambers of commerce which have
made special arrangements to fur-
nish the same information service
in their districts as the regular dis-
trict offices furnish in theirs.

The foreign-trade statistics used
so extensively in the public press are
compiled by the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce from cus-
tom house documents, in coopera-
tion witli the Treasury Department
These statistics are published month-
ly, quarterly, and yearly.

'IIIH BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

A census of the population of
the United states has been taken
decennially by the Federal Gov-

V

-•-±m

1

1

1

CENSUS TABULATING MACHINE

ernment, beginning in iT'.nt. The
Constitutional requirement of a de-
cennial census is found in Article

i. Section ::, which directs that Rep

resentatives and direct taxes shall
be apportioned among the several
States according to their respective
numbers, as ascertained by actual
enumeration, to he made once in
ten years.

From decade to decade the scope
of the census was extended to in-
clude not only a great amount of
detail with respect to the population
but also othei entirely distinct lines
of inquiry, such as agriculture,
manufactures, etc.

In 1902 the Census Office was by
law made a permanent branch of
the Department of the Interior un-
der the name "Bureau of the Cen-
sus." A year later it was trans-
ferred to the newly created Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor, and
since March 4, 1913, it has been a
bureau of the Department of Com-
merce.

The last decennial census covered
the subjects of population, agricul-
ture, manufactures and mines and
quarries and oil and gas wells.

During the years intervening be-
tween decennial censuses the bu-
reau conducts decennial inquiries re-
lating to wealth, debt and taxation,
to dependent, defective and delin-
quent classes, t<> religious bodies, to
fisheries and to transportation by
water; quinquennial inquiries in re-

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

565

gard to manufactures, central elec-
tric light and power stations, street
and electric railways and telegraphs
and telephones ; annual collections
of birth and death statistics and of
financial and other statistics of
cities ; semi-annual inquiries as to
stocks of leaf tobacco held by inanu-

The Census Bureau has developed
its tabulating machinery to an
extraordinarily high degree of effi-
ciency, so that by its aid the aver-
age output of the clerks engaged in
routine tabulation is increased
many fold. The illustration on the
preceding page shows the machine

Photo by Harris & Ewing

"ON YOUR MARK:" AWAITING THE SIGNAL RELEASING CROP REPORTS
Reporters waiting to rush to telephones

facturers and dealers ; and periodical
collections, at intervals averaging
less than one month, of statistics
relating to cotton and cottonseed.

Special inquiries are occasionally
devolved upon the bureau by Con-
gress, by the President or by the
Secretary of Commerce.

by which the final process of me-
chanical tabulation is performed.
Punched cards are automatically fed
into this machine at the rate of 400
or more per minute, and the statis-
tical facts indicated on them by the
positions of the holes are electrically
recorded with unerring accuracy.

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The functions of the Bureau of
Standards are as follows : The cus-
tody of the standards ; the compari-
son of the standards used in scien-
tific investigations, engineering, man-
ufacturing, commerce, and educa-

tional institutions with the stand-
ards adopted or recognized by the
Government ; the construction, when
necessary, of standards, their mul-
tiples and subdivisions ; the testing
and calibration of standard measur-

566

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Lng apparatus; the solution of prob-
lems which arise in connect ion with
standards; the determination of
physical constants and properties of
materials, when such data are of
great importance to scientific or
manufacturing interests and are not

cipal government within the United
States, or for any scientific society,
educational institution, firm, corpor
ation, or individual within the Unit-
ed States engaged in manufacturing
or other pursuits requiring the use
of standards or standard measuring

TEST SET OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES RECOMMENDED BY THE U. S. BUREAU

OF STANDARDS

to be obtained <>f sufficient accuracy

elsewhere: and other investigations
as authorized by Congress. The bu-
reau is authorized to exercise its
functions for the Government of the
United Slates, for any State or muni-

instruments. For all comparisons,
calibration tests, or investigations,
except those performed for the Gov-
ei i'neiit of the United States or
siate governments, a reasonable fee
will be charged.

BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES

The work of the Bureau of on the "Government Protection of
Lighthouses is given in the chapter Life and Property at Sea." page 135.

Bl RE \i OP FISHERIES

The work of the Bureau of Fish- ter on "The Fish We Eat." See
cries is given in the special chap- page <".7.

I \lli:i) STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY.

The work of the United States in the chapter on "The Three Greal
Coast and Geodetic Survey is given Governmenl Surveys." page 127.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

507

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION

By HON. EUGENE TYLER CHAMBERLAIN

Commissioner of Navigation

THE Federal Government exer-
cises general superintendence
over merchant shipping through
the Bureau of Navigation of the
Department of Commerce. To en-
gage in trade or in the fisheries,
vessels in the United States must
first secure a permit from the Gov-
ernment ; that is to say, vessels of
which the contents are 500 cubic

also decides all questions about
measuring the cubical contents of
the vessel, a somewhat intricate task
performed by custom house officers.
As various charges, Federal, local
and private, are based on the size
of vessels, the Federal Government
through the Bureau of Navigation
endeavors to see that the rules of
measurement are enforced uniform-

"Dixie'

"Tarragon"

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION FLEET

feet or more. Smaller boats are not
required to get this permit, nor are
barges, lighters and similar craft
employed only in harbors or on
canals and waters not subject to
Federal jurisdiction. The issue of
these permits is based on the clause
of the Constitution which gives the
Federal Government the power to
regulate commerce with foreign na-
tions and between the States. These
permits are called registers if the
vessel is to engage in foreign trade,
and enrollments or licenses if the
vessel is to engage solely in trade
between American ports. Collectors
of Customs issue annually these
papers, of which there are over 26,-
000, but the Bureau of Navigation
superintends the work and decides
al] doubtful questions. The Bureau

ly. Foreign nations follow the same
general method of issuing documents
to their ships and measuring their
size as does the United States — in-
deed, the laws of the United States
on ships' registers date back to the
time of Alexander Hamilton, first
Secretary of the Treasury, who
adopted the British system.

The only important tax imposed
by the Federal Government on ships
in foreign trade is a duty on their
tonnage or cubical contents, which
may not exceed annually 30 cents
a ton, or 100 cubic feet, on ships in
trade with the more remote conti-
nents, or 10 cents annually on ships
in trade with the nearby foreign
ports of North America and adja-
cent islands. This Federal tax law
is also enforced by Collectors of

.-,• a

01 K COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Customs under direction of the P.u-
reau of Navigation. The tax is im-
posed uniformly on American and
foreign ships.

Every maritime nation supervises
the labor contracts entered into by
the seamen on its merchant vessels
engaging in foreign trade. This su-
pervision is to prevent frauds upon
seamen, to prevent their being left
stranded in foreign ports and to
enable the seaman to know in ad-
vance just what work he has agreed
to perform, the course and duration
of the voyage, the fare he is to re-
ceive on board and the pay he is to
get. These contracts are made in
writing on printed Government
forms and are signed by a shipping
commissioner or collector of cus-
toms as a representative of the Gov-
ernment. When the contract has
been performed and the voyage end-
ed, the seamen are paid off and
discharged before the shipping com-
missioner. Governments are spe-
cially interested in the whereabouts
and welfare of their merchant sea-
men, as in many countries they are
reckoned an asset in national de-
fense. During the past fiscal year
487,524 officers and men signed such
agreements and were later paid off
and discharged by the commission-
ers, some men appearing in the total
as often as the number of voyages
they made. It requires 60.000 offi-
cers and men to man the ocean-
going merchant ships and yachts
under the American flag, and the
Bureau of Navigation of the Com-
merce Department lias general su-
pervision over the Shipping and dis-
charge of crews under the method
outlined. The American Navy uow
has about .".".. (mio enlisted men. and
officers and the Marine Corps bring
the total beyond the number in the
merchant service. When the war-
ships recently ordered are in com-
mission four or five years hence the
Navy will require 77,000 enlisted
men.

The Bureau of Navigation also
supervises the laws requiring wire-
less apparatus and operators on

ships and requiring wireless appara-
tus and operators on sea or land to
be licensed and to conform to re-
quirements of the international
treaty and American law designed
to prevent the interference of wire-
less stations with one another. To
carry out these laws and the treaty
the Bureau has radio insi>ectors at
the principal seaports and Great
Lake ports to inspect wireless appa-
ratus on ships lief ore their departure
and make sure that the main appa-
ratus is efficient and that the aux-
iliary apparatus, employed if the
main apparatus is put out of opera-
tion by accident at sea. is ready for
use. In the last fiscal year these
officers made 7.2.36 inspections of
ships before leaving port.

The laws of the United States
regulating American merchant ships
and foreign merchant ships in Amer-
ican ports fill a volume of consider-
able size, popularly termed the Navi-
gation Laws. These laws are de-
signed partly to insure the safety
of passengers and crews, partly to
prevent the misuse of the American
flag, to secure revenue and to pre-
vent frauds on the revenue, to pro-
mote American shipbuilding, to se-
cure comfortable quarters for
steerage passengers, to prevent col-
lisions, tire and other casualties, to
secure efficient officers and sufficient
crews, to furnish complete statistical
records within limits, to regulate
trade with foreign ports and be-
tween American ports, including
those in Alaska. Hawaii and Porto
Rico, and for many other purposes.
\ iolations of these laws involve pen-
alties of greater or less severity and
from the beginning of Government
it has been found necessary to lodge
somewhere discretionary power to
mitigate or remit such penalties
when circumstances warranted that
action, the full statutory penalties
being imposed in flagrant and willful
cases. This discretionary power is
lodged in the Secretary of Com-
inerce, and the preliminary Investi-
gation of such matters is made for
him by the Bureau of Navigation,

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

509

which ascertains all the facts and
recommends a course of action to
the Secretary. Last year 7,895 such
cases were examined by the Bureau
of Navigation. At seaports viola-
tions of law are reported by col-
lectors of customs, radio inspectors,
Coast Guard officers, inspectors spe-
cially designated to see to it that
steamers, especially excursion steam-
ers, do not leave port with more
passengers than can be safely car-
ried, and by steamboat-inspection
officers. Each owner, master, officer
or man charged with violation of
law has an opportunity to offer his
defense or excuse in writing, and the
evidence is then weighed by the
Bureau of Navigation and a recom-
mendation made to the head of the
department.

Since motor boats began to fur-
nish the means of water transporta-

tion for many parts of the country
and motor boating became a national
sport the navigation laws have come
close to thousands of Americans who
before were only remotely aware of
their existence. There are about
250,000 motor boats on the waters
of the United States. The Bureau
of Navigation has two motor boats
of its own ("Dixie" and "Tarra-
gon") which are almost constantly
engaged in securing compliance with
the laws among vessels generally,
but especially among motor boats.
They cover the Atlantic coast from
Eastport, Me., to Key West, Fla.,
visiting the intervening bays, har-
bors, sounds and rivers during the
seasons of greatest local activity,
and have proved to be an efficient
and economical means of securing
strict compliance with the naviga-
tion laws.

THE STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE

By D. N. HOOVER, Jr.
Acting Supervising Inspector General

ORGANIZATION

THE head of the Steamboat In-
spection Service is the Super-
vising Inspector General, who
is stationed at Washington, and un-
der the Supervising Inspector Gen-
eral is the Deputy Inspector General.
In addition to the clerical force at
Washington there work directly un-
der the supervision of the central
office, two traveling inspectors, one
located at New York, N. Y., and the
other at San Francisco, Cal., whose
business it is to re-examine vessels
with a view to ascertaining whether
the local inspectors have properly
inspected the same, and also to fol-
low up complaints that may be re-
ferred to them by the central office.
A corps of assistant inspectors,
detailed for duty at the steel
mills for the purpose of testing plate
to be used in construction of marine
boilers, also works under the direct
supervision of the central office.

The United States, including Ha-
waii, Alaska and Porto Rico, is
divided into ten supervising inspec-
tion districts, over each of which
districts presides a supervising in-
spector.

The Supervising Inspector Gener-
al and the ten supervising inspectors
above referred to constitute the
Board of Supervising Inspectors,
which meets in annual session the
third Wednesday of January each
year for the purpose of establishing
all necessary regulations required to
carry out in the most effective man-
ner the laws that relate to the Steam-
boat Inspection Service.

Each Supervising inspection dis-
trict is divided into local inspection
districts. Over each local inspection
district a board of local inspectors,
consisting of an inspector of hulls
and an inspector of boilers, presides.
In those districts where the pressure

571 1

OIK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES

of work requires it. there are also
stationed assistanl inspectors, who
work under the supervision of the
board of local inspectors of the
district.

ACTIVITIES OF THE SERVICE

The Service exists for the purpose

of inspecting vessels, licensing offi-
cers and conducting investigations of

disasters and violations of law.

Once each year, steamers subject
to inspection are required to have
the hulls of the same thoroughly ex-
amined, and the inspectors must sat-
isfy themselves that such vessels are
of a structure suitable for the ser-
vice in which they are to be em-
ployed, have suitable accommoda-
tions for passengers and crew, and
are in a condition to warrant the
belief that they may be used in navi-
gation as steamers with safety to
life, and the inspectors have to sat-
isfy themselves that all the require-
ments of law in regard to fires,
boats, pumps, hose, lite preservers,
floats, anchors, cables, and other
things are faithfully Complied with.
Furtherm >re, all excursion and fer-
ry steamers are required to be re-
Lnspected three times during the year
for which certified or during the
period of navigation. Local inspec-
tors are also required to Inspect the
boilers and their appurtenances in
all steam vessels before the same
shall lie used, and once at least in
every year thereafter, are required
to subject all boilers to hydrostatic
pressure. They must assure them-
selves that the boilers are well made,
of good and suitable material : that
the openings for the passage of wa-

ter and steam, respectively, and all
pipes and tubes exposed to heat, are
of proper dimensions and free from
obstructions; that the spaces be-
tween and around the flues are suf-
ficient : that flues, boilers, furnaces,
safety valves, fusible plugs, low-
water indicators, feed-water appa-
ratus, gauge cocks, steam gauges,
water and steam pipes connecting
boilers, means of prevention of
sparks and flames from fire doors.
low-water guides, means of remov-
ing mud and sediment from boilers,
and all other such machinery and
appurtenances thereof, are of such
(•(instruction, shape, condition, ar-
rangement, and material that they
may be safely employed in the serv-
ice proposed without peril to life.

Applicants for licenses from the
Service obtain the same in all in-
stances, except in the case of oper-
ators for motor boats, after due writ-
ten examination before the local in-
spectors having jurisdiction, and in
the case of deck officers, in addition
to the written examination, they are
examined as to color-sense and
visual acuity. As a result of the
Seamen's Act. the Service also cer-
tificates able seamen and lifeboat
men.

The boards of local inspectors
have authority by statute to investi-
gate disasters and violations of law.
and when they are conducting such
investigations they are proceeding in
a quasi judicial manner, and by
statute certain appeals are provided
from the local inspectors to the
supervising inspectors, and in cer-
tain instances, to the Supervising
inspector General.

CHAPTER XIV.
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

THE SECRETARY OF LABOR

THE Secretary of Labor is
charged with the duty of
fostering, promoting, and de-
veloping the welfare of the wage
earners of the United States, im-
proving their working conditions,
and advancing their opportunities
for profitable employment. He has
power under the law to act as
mediator and to appoint commis-
sioners of conciliation in labor dis-
putes whenever in his judgment the
interests of industrial peace may re-
quire it to be done. He has authori-
ty to direct the collecting and col-
lating of full and complete statistics
of the conditions of labor and the
products and distribution of the
products of the same and to call
upon other departments of the Gov-
ernment for statistical data and re-
sults obtained by them and to col-
late, arrange, and publish such sta-
tistical information so obtained in
such manner as to him may seem
wise. His duties also comprise the
gathering and publication of in-
formation regarding labor interests
and labor controversies in this and
other countries; the supervision of
the immigration of aliens, and the
enforcement of the laws relating
thereto, and to the exclusion of Chi-
nese; the direction of the adminis-
tration of the naturalization laws;
the direction of the work of investi-
gating all matters pertaining to the

welfare of children and child life
and to cause to be published such
results of these Investigations as he
may deem wise and appropriate.

The law creating the Department
of Labor provides that all duties
performed and all power and au-
thority possessed Or exercised by the
head of any executive department at
the time of the passage of the said
law. in and over any bureau, office,
officer, board, branch, or division of
the public service by said act trans-
ferred to the Department of Labor,
or any business arising therefrom or
pertaining thereto, or in relation to
the duties performed by and au-
thority conferred by law upon such
bureau, officer, office, board, branch,
or division of the public service.
whether of an appellate or advisory
character or otherwise, are vested in
and exercised by the head of the
said Department of Labor. The
Secretary id' Labor is also given au-
thority and directed to investigate
and report to Congress a plan of
co-ordination of the activities, duties,
and powers of the office of the Sec-
retary of Labor with the activities.
duties, and powers of the present
bureaus, commissions, and depart-
ments, so far as they relate to labor
and its conditions, in order to har-
monize and unify such activities,
duties, and powers, with a view to
additional legislation to further de-
line tin' duties and powers of the
Department of Labor, and to make
such special investigations and re-
ports to the President or Congress
as may lie required by them or which
he may deem necessary, and to re-
port annually to Congress upon the
work of the Department of Labor.

Copyright by Munn A: <'•■., [nc.

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

573

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF LABOR

The Assistant Secretary performs
such duties as shall be prescribed
by the Secretary or may be required

by law. He becomes the Acting
Secretary of Labor in the absence
of the Secretary.

CHIEF CLERK

The chief clerk is charged with the
general supervision of the clerks and em-
ployees of the department ; the enforce-
ment of the general regulations of the
department ; the superintendency of all
buildings occupied by the department in
the District of Columbia ; the general

supervision of all expenditures from
the appropriations for contingent ex-
penses and rents ; the receipt, distribu-
tion, and transmission of the mail, and
the discharge of all business of the
Secretary's office not otherwise as-
signed.

DISBURSING CLERK

The disbursing clerk is charged by the
Secretary of Labor with the duty of
preparing all requisitions for the advance
of public funds from appropriations for
the Department of Labor to disbursing
clerks and special disbursing agents
charged with the disbursement of public
funds ; the keeping of appropriation
ledgers relating to the advance and ex-
penditure of all items of appropriations.
He has charge of the issuing, recording.

and accounting for Government requests
for transportation issued to officers of
the department for official travel ; the
audit and payment of all vouchers and
accounts submitted from the various
offices, bureaus, and services of the de-
partment ; the general accounting of
the department ; and the accounting for
all naturalization receipts received under
the provisions of the act of June 29,
1906.

APPOINTMENT CLERK

The appointment clerk has charge of
all clerical work incident to appoint-
ments which are made under the juris-

diction of the department. He is custo-
dian of oaths of office, bonds of officers,
personnel files, and efficiency reports.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS AND SUPPLIES

The Chief of the Division of Publica-
tions and Supplies is charged by the
Secretary of Lr.bor with the conduct of
all business the department transacts
with the Government Printing Office ;
the general supervision of printing, in-
cluding the editing and preparation of
copy, illustrating and binding, the dis-
tribution of publications, and the main-
tenance of mailing lists. All blank
books and blank forms and the printed
stationery of all kinds used by the bu-
reaus and offices of the department in
Washington and the various outside ser-
vices of the department are in his cus-
tody and are supplied by him. The ad-
vertising done by the department is in
his charge. He also keeps a record of
all expenditures for the publishing work

of the department and conducts the cor-
respondence it entails. Under the direc-
tion of the chief clerk he has personal
supervision of all the work incident
to the purchase and distribution of
supplies for the department proper and
for the services of the department out-
side of Washington and of the keeping
of detailed accounts of all expenditures
from the appropriation for contingent
expenses of the department. He re-
ceives, verifies, and preserves the semi-
annual returns of property from the
offices and bureaus of the department
which are supplied from the contingent
appropriation, and examines and reports
on the semi-annual property returns of
all other bureaus and services of the
department.

BUREAU OF IMMIGRATION

The Bureau of Immigration is charged
with the administration of the laws re-
lating to immigration and of the Chinese-
exclusion laws. It supervises all ex-
penditures under the appropriation for
"Expenses of regulating immigration."

It causes alleged violations of the immi-
gration, Chinese-exclusion, and alien con-
tract-labor laws to be investigated, and
when prosecution is deemed advisable
submits evidence for that purpose to the
proper United States district attorney.

574

(Hi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

DIVISION OF INFORMATION

The division of information, under the
Bureau of Immigration, gathers from all
available sources Information concerning
the resources, products, and physical
characteristics of the states and Terri-
tories. This information is made avail-
able to admitted aliens and others seek-
ing homes or places of settlement.

l oder the direction of the Secretary of

Labor, the division also acts as a division
for the distribution and employment of
labor, and is the central office of the
eighteen distribution zones covering the
entire Dnited States. In this phase of
its activities it co-operates with the
Post Office Department, the Department
of Agriculture, and the Department of
the Interior.

BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION

The act approved March 4. 1913, cre-
ating the Department of Lahor. provided
a Bureau of Naturalization, and that the
Commissioner of Naturalization, or. in
his absence, the Deputy Commissioner
of Naturalization, shall be the adminis-
trative officer in charge of the Bureau of
Naturalization and of the administration
of the naturalization laws under the
immediate direction of the Secretary of
Labor. Under the provisions of the act
of June 29, 1906, naturalization juris-
diction was conferred upon approximate-
ly 3,500 United States and State courts.
The duties of the Bureau of Naturaliza-
tion are to supervise the work of these

courts in naturalization matters, to con-
duct all correspondence relating to natur-
alization, and. through its field officers
located in various cities of the United
States, to investigate the qualifications
of the candidates for citizenship and
represent the Government at the hear-
ings of petitions for naturalization. In
the archives of the bureau are filed
duplicates of all certificates of naturali-
zation granted since September 26, 1906,
as well as the preliminary papers of all
candidates for citizenship filed since that
date, averaging an annual receipt of ap-
proximately 450,000 naturalization pa-
pers.

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

The Bureau of Labor Statistics is
charged with the duty of acquiring and
diffusing among the people of the United
States useful information on subjects
connected with labor in the most gen-
eral and comprehensive sense of that
word, and especially upon its relations
to capital, the hours of labor, the earn-
ings of laboring men and women, and
the means of promoting their material,
social, intellectual, and moral prosperity.

It is especially charged to Investigate
the causes of and facts relating to con-
troversies and disputes between emploj
ers and employees as they may occur,
and which may happen to interfere with

the welfare of the people of the several

States.

It is also authorized, by act of March
2, 1895, to publish a bulletin on the
condition of labor in this and other
countries, condensations of state and
foreign labor reports, facts as to condl
tions of employment, and such other
[acts as may be deemed of value to the

industrial interests of the United States.
This bulletin is Issued in a number of
series, each dealing with a single sub-
ject or closely related group of subjects.
and the bulletin is published at irregu-
lar intervals as matter becomes avail-
able for publication.

By the act to provide a government
for the Territory of Hawaii, as amended,
it is made the duty of the bureau to
collect and present in quinquennial re
ports statistical details relating to all
departments of labor In the Territory
of Hawaii, especially those statistics
which relate to the commercial, industri-
al, social, educational and sanitary con
dition of the laboring classes.

The administration of the act of May
30, 1908, granting to certain employees
of the Tinted states the right to receive
from it compensation for injuries sn-
tained in the course of their emploj
ment, is vested in the bureau by the act
of March 4, 1913, creating the Depart-
ment of Labor.

CHILDREN'S BUREAU

The act establishing the bureau pro-
vides that it shall Investigate and report
upon all matters pertaining to the wel
fare of children and child life among
all classes of our people, and shall es

peclallj i n \ est Iga te the questions of In-
fant i taiity. the birth rate, orphanage,

juvenile courts, desertion, dangerous qc

cupations, accidents and diseases of
cnudren, employment, and legislation af-
fecting children in the several states and
Territories. The bureau is also empow
ered to publish the results of these In

\ estimations in such manner and to such
extent as may be prescribed by the Sec

retarj of Labor.

CHAPTER XV.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

TIIE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, AT WASHINGTON, FOR THE INCREASE AND
DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AMONG MEN

From Official Sources

THE Smithsonian Institution
was created by act of Congress
in 1846, under the terms of the
will of James Smithson, an English-
man, who, in 1826, bequeathed his
fortune to the United States of
America to found, at Washington,
under the name of the "Smithsonian
Institution," an establishment for

the "increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men." From the in-
come of the fund a building, known
as the Smithsonian building, was
erected on land given by the United
States. The Institution is legally
an establishment having as its mem-
bers the President of the United
States, the Vice-President, the Chief

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc.

576

01 It COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

Justice and tho President's Cabinet
li is governed by a Board of Regents
consisting of the Vice-President, the
Chief Justice, three members of the
United stales Senate, three mem-
bers of the House of Representa-
tives and six citizens of the United
States, appointed by joint resolution
of Congress. It is under the imme-
diate supervision of the secretary of
the Smithsonian institution, who is
the executive officer and the director
of all of the Institution's activi-
ties.

For the increase of knowledge the
Institution aids investigators by
making grants for research and ex-
ploration, supplying hooks, appara-
tus, laboratory accommodations, etc.
It occasionally provides for lectures,
which are published. It has initiated
numerous scientific projects of na-
tional importance, some of which
have resulted in the creation of in-
dependent Government bureaus. It
advises the Government in many
matters of scientific character, espe-
cially in those that have an interna-
tional aspect

For the diffusion of knowledge the

Institution issues three regular
series of publications: Annual Re-
ports. Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge and the Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections. All these
publications are distributed gratui-
tously to important libraries
throughout the world.

The Institution, in co-operation
with the Library of Congress, main-
tains a scientific library which num-
bers 260,000 volumes, consisting
mainly of the transactions of learned
societies ami scientific periodicals.

The parent institution has the ad-
ministrative charge of several
branches which .urew out of its early
activities and which are supported
by Congressional appropriations.
These are the National Museum, in-
cluding the National Gallery of Art ;
the Intel-national Exchange Serv-
ice; the Bureau of American Eth-
nology: the National Zoological
Park: the Astrophysical Observa-
tory, ami the Regional Bureau for
the International Catalogue of Sci-
entific Literature.

NATURAL HISTORY BUILDING. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

Till: UNITED STATES .NATIONAL MUSEUM

Established by the ad of Con-
gress of L846 founding the Smith-
sonian Institution, and under its
direction, the United States Na-
tional Museum is the designated
depository for the national col-

lections in art and natural his-
tory, being also charged with
their classified arrangement and
their use in advancing knowledge
and promoting education. Starting
with accommodations in the Smith-

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

sonian building, which it still
largely occupies, two extensive
structures have since been erected
especially for its purposes, one com-
pleted in 1881, the other in 1911.
Located on the Mall, between Ninth
and Twelfth Streets, these three
buildings furnish the museum with
about 650,000 square feet or nearly
15 acres of floor space, somewhat
more than half of which is devoted
to the public exhibitions.

and storage quarters and an audi-
torium.

The natural history collections, in-
cluding, besides zoology and botany,
geology, paleontology, ethnology,
archeology and physical anthro-
pology, represent the greatest and
most important growth of the
museum. The first notable acquisi-
tion consisted of the rich and varied
results of the cruise of the U. S.
Exploring Expedition in the South

HALL OF AMERICAN HISTORY, OLDER BUILDING, U". S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

The latest building, four stories
high, of white granite, with a main
frontage of 561 feet and a depth
of 364y2 feet, and costing $3,500,000.
is architecturally one of the most
prominent among the Government
edifices in Washington. Specifically
designed to meet the requirements
of natural history, and with its two
main floors and part of another com-
posed of large exhibition halls, it
also contains exceptionally exten-
sive and well-appointed laboratories

Seas and other waters during the
four years from 1838 to 1842. Then,
for a long period, the bulk of the
a < -cessions came from numerous spe-
cial explorations, principally by the
Government, in the western part of
the United States, and to some ex-
tent in other near and far regions ;
and these were followed by the regu-
larly organized Government surveys
and investigations, still in progress.
Through thousands of other sources
material from every qiaarter of the

578

QUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

globe has also been acquired, an !
this constant How of specimens has
advanced the National Museum in
its oatural history departments to
the highesl rank among the museums
of the world. Its collections are.
naturally, most complete for North
America, and. besides having served
as the basis for extended and im-
portant researches for over two
thirds of a century, they have been
liberally utilized in the interest of
general education, with methods of
public installation developed to a
remarkable stage of perfection.

of periods, the most conspicuous fea-
ture being a large and varied series
of Washington relics, one hall is
devoted t<> costumes and another to
coins, medals and postal tokens. The
industrial art collections are of
greal importance both historically
and suggestively, and while inade-
quate facilities have somewhat re-
tarded their development, they al-
ready form the basis of a depart-
ment of the utmost practical signifi-
cance. Among the subjects even
now widely represented are the
graphic arts and ceramics; textiles,

'JOHN BULL" ENGINE, AND HALL OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY. OLDER
BUILDING, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

The older museum and Smith-
sonian buildings are assigned to
American history and the industrial
arts, except that the upper main
story of the latter structure is oc-
cupied by the division of plants, or
National Herbarium. The exhibi-
tion collections of history, which lill
four balls, are especially rich in
mementoes of prominent persons and

laces, embroideries, woods, medi-
cines, foods and the various miscel-
laneous uses to which animal and
vegetable products are put ; the pro-
cesses "\' mining ami of dealing with
mineral products; land, water and
air transportation: lire arms ami
other weapons, weights and meas-
ures: electrical and other inven
tions. including the telegraph, tele-

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

579

phone and phonograph; and all
classes of machinery and of physical
apparatus.

The National Gallery of Art or
department of the fine arts acquired
in 1849 a notable series of engrav-
ings of the old masters and many
works on art which had been assem-
bled by George P. Marsh. Occa-
sional additions were received in
subsequent years, but it was not
until the bequest of Harriet Lane
Johnston in 1906 that the gallery
took form. This collection of seven-
teen paintings, besides other objects,
includes a Luini and several excel-
lent English and Dutch portraits.
In the same year Mr. Charles L.
Freer, of Detroit, Mich., presented
his notable collection of American
and Oriental art, to which he has
constantly added until its size has
been more than doubled. It now
consists of some 5,346 articles, of
which over 1,000 are paintings,
pastels, drawings, engravings, litho-
graphs, etc., by nine American art-
ists, headed by Whistler ; while the

Oriental objects, exceeding 4,300 in
number, some of which date back
several centuries B. C, include paint-
ings, pottery, bronzes, sculptures,
jades, glass, etc., mainly from China,
Japan, Corea, Persia, India, Meso-
potamia and Egypt, constituting a
collection of exceptional value, un-
rivaled in the importance of the
material it furnishes for research
into the art of the Far East. To
Mr. William T. Evans, of New York,
the gallery is indebted for a selec-
tion of 151 paintings in illustration
of the work of contemporary Ameri-
can artists, 106 of whom are repre-
sented, and also for numerous ex-
amples of the best American wood
engraving. There have also been
many individual contributions to the
gallery, and, in default of other ac-
commodations, its possessions are
provisionally installed in the natural
history building, except the Freer
collection, for which a special build-
ing has been designed and will imme-
diately be erected at the expense of
Mr. Freer.

THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE

The International Exchange Ser-
vice— a branch of the United States
Government carried on under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion— serves as an intermediary for
the exchange of scientific and liter-
ary publications between establish-
ments and individuals in the United
States and those in foreign coun-
tries. This phase of its work was
begun soon after the Institution was
founded in 1846.

Later, in 1867, an exchange of
official documents between govern-
ments was established, and Con-
gress, by act of March 2 of that
year, provided for this purpose a
certain number of copies of all par-
liamentary acts and of all publica-
tions printed by order of any depart-
ment or bureau of the Government,
which are forwarded through the
Exchange Service to various for-
eign countries.

BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

The Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy was established by Congress in
1879, at the instance of the late
Major J. W. rowell, for the pur-
pose of conducting ethnologic re-
searches among the American In-
dians, but subsequently its investi-
gations were extended to include
Hawaii. Although devoted chiefly
to the aborigines in the United

States, researches by the bureau
have been conducted in lesser degree
in Canada, Mexico, Central Amer-
ica. South America and the West
Indies. In these investigations
ethnology has been taken in its
broadest sense to include all the
activities of the Indian race, as
well as their archeology and his-
tory. The results of the bureau's

:,si )

01 R COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

studies to the present time are em-
bodied in thirty-three annual re-
ports and sixty-three bulletins pub-
lished or in press, as well as a num-
ber of miscellaneous publications.
The bureau maintains a corps of
nine ethnologists, possesses an eth-

nologic reference library of about
21,500 volumes and 13.500 pamph-
lets, many thousand photographic
negatives of Indian portraits and
other subjects, and a large collection
of original manuscripts, pertaining
chiefly to Indian linguistics.

ANIMALS AT THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL LARK

The National Zoological Park, es-
tablished by act of Congress in
1890, "for the instruction and recre-
ation of the people," and placed
under the direction of the Smith-
sonian Institution, maintains a col-
lection of living animals which is
exhibited free to the public. The
park occupies 169 acres in the val-
ley of Rock Creek, about three miles

northwest of the White House. The
collection comprises (June 30, 1916)
about 1,400 specimens. The number
of visitors during 1015 was over
1 .( ii M 1,1 N it >. The park co-operates with
the United states National Museum,
the Department of Agriculture, the
United States Hygienic Laboratory.
and private investigators, in various
ways.

TIIK ASTHOPHYSICAL OKSKRVATORY

The Astrophysical Observatory of
the Smithsonian Institution, founded
in 1890 and supported by small
annual appropriations by Congress,
is engaged in exact measurements
of the intensity of the sun's radi-
ation. Principal results: Map of
Fraunhofer lines of infra-red solar
spectrum to wave-length 53000 Ang-
stroms. I determination of the mean

intensity of solar radiation out-
side the earth's atmosphere, 1.93
calories per square centimeter per

minute. Discovery of the varia-
bility of the sun's radiation through
a range of about ."i per cent attend
Ing the sun spot cycle, and also of
an irregular variability, sometimes
reaching 1«» per cent in short inter-
vals of a few days or weeks. Prin-
cipal observing station on .Mount
Wilson. California. Expeditions to
North Carolina, Sumatra. Flint
Island for total solar eclipse work,
and to Mount Whitney. Cal. (14,500
feet) and Bassour, Algeria, for solar

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

581

radiation work. Inventions of sil-
ver disk pyrheliometer, standard
water pyrhelioineters and pyrano-
meter. Furnished about thirt/v

standardized silver disk pyrhelio-
meters to government and private
observatories in various parts of the
world.

UNITED STATES REGIONAL BUREAU INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

The International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature publishes an
annual classified index to the liter-
ature of science. The organization
consists of a central bureau in Lon-
don and thirty-three regional bu-

reaus established in, and supported
by, the principal countries of the
world. That for the United States
is supported by an annual appro-
priation from Congress, adminis-
tered by the Smithsonian Institution.

TOWER TELESCOPE. ASTROPHYSICAL
OBSERVATORY, MOUNT WILSON

CHAPTER XVI.

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES OF THE

GOVERNMENT

THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING

OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.

By Hon. CORNELIUS FORD, Public Printer

FROM 17S0 to 1861 the Govern-
ment printing and binding was
done in private offices. This
plan became expensive and unsatis-
factory, and in ISO! Congress au-
thorized the purchase of the print-
ing plant then owned by Cornelius
Wendall, located en a portion of the
site now occupied by what is known
as the "old building." This office
at the time of purchase employed
300 persons, and the Government
paid approximately $135,000 for the
building and equipment. Subse-
quently various additions were made
to the plant, but were inadequate to
meet the demands for work. The
development of printing and binding
for the public is typical of the in-
dustrial and commercial growth of
the republic, and emphasizes the
spirit of inquiry ami investigation
that characterizes the American
people— a spirit that is causing an

almost fabulous volui f printing

on subjects of general, special, or
peculiar Interest to our citizens.

In 1899, the need of larger quar-
ters having become imperative,
Congress authorized the construc-
tion of the present building oil
ground adjoining the "Id offices.
This building is of magnificenl pro-
portions, and is a landmark in the

Capital City, and an ondurinjr monu-
ment to the art of typography and
the part it plays in our Government.
It contains 7 floors, with basement
and loft, with floor space of :;7l\ .':."><>
square feet, and cost approximately
$2,410,000. The old building is used
principally for storage, and com-
bined floor area of entire plant is
13% acres. The office is as nearly
fireproof as any building can be
made, and numerous wide staircases
are distributed in such a way as to
facilitate the egress of employees in
case of lire or panic. The most up-
to-date sanitary conditions prevail,
an emergency hospital is provided
for the use of employees, and a
"rest room" is available for use of
women employees who may become
exhausted during working hours.
There are about -4.(1(111 persons em-
ployed, and the entire plant is under
the direct management of the Public
Printer, who is appointed by the
President at an annual salary of
s:».."(m>.

The general layout is as follows:
.loii Composing Room— 92 employees.
with up-to-date equipment : this siv-
tiOD handles 30,000 jobs in a year.
Linotype ( Composing Section — 245
employees, with 81 linotype machines
ami firsl «iass equipment ; about l

Copyright by Mmm «v Co., inc.

Miscellaneous activities

583

billion ems of type are sot in one
year on the linotype machines.
Monotype Composing Section — 435
employees, with 165 keyboards and
126 casters ; about 1 billion 300 mil-
lion ems of type are set in one year
on the monotype machines. Hand
Composing Section — 225 employees,
engaged principally in correcting,
making up and imposing. Proof
Room — 270 employees, engaged in
editing, preparing, reading and re-
vising. Electrotype and Stereotype
Foundry — 130 employees, with up-to-
date equipment, producing over
13,000,000 square inches of plated
matter in a year. Press Room — 443
employees, with 145 modern presses ;
all rollers and about one-third of
necessary ink are made on premises.
Bindery — 950 employees, with com-
plete machine equipment for all
kinds of pamphlet and bound work.
A number of smaller divisions
handle special work, such as postal
cards, money order books, etc.
Branch offices are located in the
State, AVar and Navy building and
in the Congressional Library, and
handle emergency work for these
branches of the Government.

The buildings contain 16 elevators,
besides several lifts for handling
forms of type from pressroom or
foundry. Eight automobile trucks,
with capacity ranging from 1,000 to
8,000 pounds each, together with a
number of side-car motorcycles, de-
liver all work produced in the Gov-
ernment Printing Office. Pneumatic
tubes furnish rapid communication
between various divisions. A plate
vault for the storage and safekeep-
ing of electrotype and stereotype
plates is located in the basement of
the new building, occupying 10,000
square feet of floor space ; old plates
are constantly being destroyed and
the metal used over, and new plates
added ; about 1,200.000 plates, weigh-
ing approximately 7.000,000 pounds,
are constantly on hand.

The engine room equipment con-
sists of four electric generators
totaling 2,500 kilowatts, two air
compressors with capacity of 3,000

cubic feet of free air per minute,
one 2,0(10.000 gallon pumping engine,
and one refrigerating plant for cir-
culating drinking water and making
ice. The boiler room equipment
consists of eight boilers, six of which
are Scotch marine type, hand fired,
totaling 1,800 horse-power, and two
are water tube boilers with auto-
matic stokers, totaling 1,000 horse-
power ; a total of 2,800 horse-power.
The total value of all machine
equipment is approximately $2,500,-
000. The upkeep of building and
equipment is under the direction of
a superintendent of buildings, and
this work is handled by an elec-
trical division with 71 employees, a
machinists' division with 32 em-
ployees, a carpenter division with
27 employees and a building division
with 36 employees.

The materials used yearly are as
follows: Paper stock, 32,000,000
pounds; ink, 65,000 pounds; leather
stock, 300,000 square feet ; gold and
aluminium, 30,000,000 square inches ;
sewing thread, 32,000.000 yards;
cloth for binding, 250,000 yards;
wire for stitching, 6,500,000 feet;
glue, 225,000 pounds; paste, 34,000
gallons ; card containers, 3,000,000 ;
metals, 200,000 pounds ; keyboard
paper, 10,200,000 feet; coal, 12,500
tons ; soap, 40,000 pounds.

The Government Printing Office is
the largest office in the world, but
printing and binding is increasing
so rapidly that it is only by exten-
sive systematizing of production
methods can Government needs be
met. The vast increase in work is
shown by fact that blanks, schedules,
postal cards, money order forms,
envelopes and similar work printed
in fiscal year 1915 totaled about 3
billion copies, as compared with
about 131 millions in 1880. Book
work increased proportionately and
about 1,700,000 type pages are set
in one year.

The output of postal cards is ap-
proximately 4,000,000 a day. About
120,000,000 money order forms are
printed each year and delivered in
books of from 50 to 200 each.

r,M

oi it C01 'NTiiY a.\i> its RESOURCES

Some of the principal items of
production in ;i year arc: Copies on
job work, postal cards ami money
orders, 3,000,000,000; blank books,
1,130,000; newspapers and miscel-
laneous documents bound, 100,000 ;
pamphlets and books printed, 100,-
000,000. In addition, the Daily Con-
gressional Record is printed each
night during session of Congress,
varying in size from 8 to 225 quarto
pages; tbe copy comes in late at
night — some of it as late as 2 A. M. ;
type must be set, plates made, 34,000
copies printed, folded, gathered,
wire-stitched and addressed in time
to catch early morning mail. About
30 million copies of speeches are

on paper, and delivery made to the
Capitol, one half mile distant, in
from 15 to 20 minutes after copy is
received. The bound CoiKjrcssiunaJ
Record, covering proceedings of the
63d Congress. I'd Session, made 19
volumes; 6,130 copies were printed
and bound on each volume, making
a total of 110.470 volumes.

The total annual expense of the
office is about $6,500,000, and this
amount is divided and allotted be-
tween Congress, tbe departments
and the various bureaus of the Gov-
ernment, in accordance with their
necessity for printing, each being
allowed printing and binding only to
the amount of their allotment. Ex-

PRINTING- 4,000,000 POSTAL CARDS EACH DAY.

printed annually for Members of
Congress and paid for by them.
Approximately 25,000 bills and reso-
lutions of Congress are printed dur-
ing a session, varying in size from
L' to 200 pages, with from 200 to 800
copies on each. I Miring the closing
hours of a session of Congress the
pressure for hurried work is tremen-
dous and there have been times
when hills making from 1 to 12
pages have been put in type, read.
1 copy printed on parchment and 3

Isting law requires this printing and
binding to be done at cost, and
charges are based upon a fixed scale

of prices, regulated by a modern
cost system, and rendered for each
piceo of work produced. Employees
work eight hours a day, receive a
compensation comparing favorably
with union wages paid tb.r0Ugb.0Ul
tbe country, and are allowed thirty
days' vacation with pay each year.
Some divisions of the office run
night forces throughout the year and

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

385

others only during the session of
Congress. Employees working at
night receive a 20 per cent advance
over day rates in pay.

The Division of Public Documents
is a central distributing agency for
Government publications and re-
ceives, by law, copies of all public
documents printed in the Govern-
ment Printing Office. A specified
number of these documents are dis-
tributed to certain designated de-
pository libraries throughout the
country, and other copies are sold

at cost to the public, no m-»re than
one copy to any one person. Forty
million documents are sent out by
this division in a year, and in order
to facilitate mailing a 30-inch belt
conveyor, operating through a tun-
nel 7 feet high, 8 feet wide and 455
feet long, connects the Government
Printing Office with the mailing
tables of the city post office. Copies
of Government publications can be
secured by writing the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D, C.

COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE

The Council of National Defense
was created by the act of June 3,
1910. Its membership consists of
the Secretaries of War. Navy, In-
terior, Agriculture, Commerce and
Labor, and a civilian advisory com-
mission of seven members nominated
by the Council and appointed by the
President. The Advisory Commis-
sion is composed of Daniel Willard,
president of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad, chairman ; Samuel Gom-
pers, president of the American Fed-
eration of Labor ; Dr. Franklin H.
Martin, of Chicago; Howard E. Cof-
fin, of Detroit; Bernard Baruch, of
New York ; Dr. Hollis Goudfrey, of
Philadelphia, and Julius Rosenwald,
of Chicago. All the members, as
such, serve without compensation,
but are allowed actual expenses of
travel and subsistence when attend-
ing meetings of the Council, or en-
gaged in investigations pertaining to
its activities.

The duties of the Council are to
supervise and direct, investigations
and make recommendations to the
President and the heads of execu-
tive departments as to the location
of railroads, with reference to the
frontiers of the United States, so

as to render possible expeditious
concentration of troops and supplies
to points of defense ; the co-ordina-
tion of military, industrial, and com-
mercial purposes in the location of
extensive highways and branch lines
of railroads ; the utilization of
waterways ; the mobilization of
military and naval resources for
defense ; the increase of domestic
production of articles and materials
essential to the support of armies
and of the people during the inter-
ruption of foreign commerce ; the
development of seagoing trans-
portation ; data as to amounts, loca-
tion, method and means of produc-
tion, and availability of military
supplies; the giving of information
to producers and manufacturers as
to the class of supplies needed by
military and other services of the
Government, and the creation of
relations which will render possible
in time of need the immediate con-
centration and utilization of the
resources of the nation.

It establishes the policy for the
Government departments as regards
national defense. The actual work
will be done by sub-committee. Its
first meeting was held Dec. 0, 1910.

INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION

The Interstate Commerce Coin-
mission, appointed under "an act to
regulate commerce." approved Feb-
ruary 4, 1887, has supervision over

all common carriers engaged in the
transportation of passengers or
property wholly by railroad, or
partly by railroad and partly b.v

586

OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

water, when both are used under
common control, management, or ar-
rangement for a continuous carriage

or shipment, including express,
Bleeping and parlor car companies.
telephone, cable, telegraph and wire-
less companies, and all pipe lines.
Erom one Stale. Territory, or Dis-
trict of the 1'nited States to any
other state. Territory, or District
of the United States, or to any for-
eign country. It has jurisdiction
to inquire into and report on the
reasonableness of rates: undue or
unreasonable preferences or advan-
tages in transportation rates or
facilities; to prescribe the publicity
to be given to joint tariffs: the
power to call for reports, to require
the attendance of witnesses and the

production of 1 ks and papers, to

hear complaints of the violation of
the act made against any carrier,
and to determine what reparation
shall be made to the party wronged.

By the act of June 18, 1910, the
jurisdiction of the commission was
increased as to through rates, and
joint rates, freight classification,
switch connections, long and short
hauls, tiling or rejection of freight
schedules, investigat ions on own mo-
tion, determining reasonable rales.
suspension of proposed rates, and
other matters.

The act of March 2, 1893, known
as the •'safety appliance act," pro-
vides that railroad cars used in

interstate commerce must be
equipped with automatic couplers,
and drawbars of a standard height
for freight cars, and have grab-
irons or handholds in the ends and
sides of each car: and that loco-
motive engines shall be equipped
with a power driving-wheel brake
and appliances for operating the
train-brake system.

Other acts have delegated further
powers and duties to the commis-
sion, such as regulating the safe
transportation of explosives by com-
mon carriers: compelling railroad
companies to equip locomotives and
tenders with safe appurtenances;
the investigation of railroad acci-
dents; compelling railroads to equip
cars with sill steps, hand brake's,
ladders, running boards, and roof
handholds, and designating the num-
ber, dimensions. location and man-
ner of application of appliances;
and making common carriers liable
for all damage to property caused
by them, and' forbids, with certain
exceptions, limitations of liability.
The commission has been directed
to investigate, ascertain, and report
the value of property owned or used
by every common carrier.

The commission is now composed
Of seven members. It appoints a
secretary, and such attorneys, ex-
aminers, special agents, and clerks
as are necessary in the proper per-
formance of its duties.

ri\ it. si:i;\ hi: com MISSION

The purpose ,,f the civil service
act, as declared in its title, is "to
regulate and improve the civil serv-
ice of the United states." it pro-
vides for the appointment of three
commissioners, not more than two
of whom shall be adherents of the
same political party, and makes it
the duty of the commission to aid
the President, as he may request,
in preparing suitable rules for car-
rying the act Into effect. The act
requires that the rules shall pro-
vide, .-1111011- other things, for open
competitive examinations for test-

ing the fitness of applicants for the
classified service, the making of ap-
pointments from among those pass-
ing witli highest grades, an appor-
tionment of appointments in the de-
partments at Washington among the
States and Territories, a period of
probation before absolute appoint-
ment, and the prohibition of the use
of official authority to coerce the
political action of any person or
body. The acl also prcn ides for in-
vestigations touching the enforce-
ment of the rules, and forbids, under
penalty of line or imprisonment, or

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

587

both, the solicitation by any person
in the service of the United States
of contributions to be used for
political purposes from persons in

such service, or the collection of
such political contributions by any
other person in a Government
building.

FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD

Generally speaking, the functions
of the Federal Reserve Board are
to exercise a broad supervision over
the affairs and conduct of twelve
Federal reserve banks established in
accordance with the terms of the
Federal reserve act in different parts
of the country and invested with
authority to discount paper, issue
Federal reserve notes, and perform
the various banking functions de-
scribed in the act itself. The board
has full power to appoint its own
staff of employees and officers and
to regulate the conditions of their

employment. Its support is derived
from the several reserve banks from
assessments levied by it half yearly
pro rata. The board is responsible
to Congress and reports annually to
that body. Certain functions in con-
nection with the national banking
system are also assigned to it under
the legislation, although the Comp-
troller of the Currency, who is a
member of the board, exercises the
same general administrative and
supervisory authority over the na-
tional banks that has been in his
hands in the past.

THE FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION

The Federal Trade Commission
was organized March 16, 1915. It
consists of five Commissioners, ap-
pointed by the President. Their
term of office is seven years, and not
more than three of them shall be of
the same political party. The work
of the Commission falls within three
main divisions.

First, it is charged with the duty
of enforcing the law against unfair
methods of competition. It receives
informal complaints of such meth-
ods employed in interstate com-
merce. If upon examination there
is, in the judgment of the Commis-
sion, reason to believe that such un-
fair methods are being used it pro-
ceeds to have them corrected, either
by informal negotiations with the
parties complained against or, in
case this fails, by filing its own
formal complaint and conducting
hearings in the case. If the prac-
tices complained of are found ac-
tually to exist the Commission issues
its order directing those indulging in
them to cease and desist. The Com-
mission has considered and disposed
of many cast's and in most instances
the practices complained of have

been abandoned without the filing
of formal complaints.

Second, it makes, either on its
own initiative, if deemed in the pub-
lic interest, or by direction of either
House of Congress, special investi-
gations of particular industries for
the purpose of ascertaining all the
facts relative thereto, with the view
of correcting abuses if any are
found to exist. It has concluded, or
is now conducting, investigations of
this kind with respect to the fer-
tilizer, petroleum, beet sugar, coal
and print paper industries, and
others. It has also investigated con-
ditions in the foreign trade of the
United States and the tariff laws
and regulations of several South
American countries.

Third, it offers its advice and
assistance to business men along
lines that will be helpful in bring-
ing about greater efficiency. In this
connection it has prepared systems
of cost accounting that are adapted
to the needs of manufacturers and
merchants. In addition to this its
expert accountants are available to
associations of business men for the
purpose of conferring with them and

588

mi; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

offering advice with respect to their
accounting methods. Merchants and
manufacturers can obtain copies of

bulletins containing the accounting
systems upon application to the
Commission at Washington, D. C.

UNITED STATES (JEOCiUAl'IIIC BOARD

By Executive
order of August
10. hhm;. the offi-
cial title of the
T" ii i ted States
Board on Geo-
graphic Names
was changed to
United States
Geographic Board and its duties
enlarged.

The Board passes on all unsettled
questions concerning geographic
names which arise in the depart-
ments, as well as determining,
changing and fixing place names
within the United States and its
insular possessions, and all names
hereafter suggested by any officer of

the Government shall be referred to
the board before publication. The
decisions of the board are to be
accepted by all departments of the
Government as standard authority.
Advisory powers were granted the
board concerning the preparation of
maps compiled, or to bo compiled, in
the various offices and bureaus of
the Government, with a special view
to the avoidance of unnecessary
duplications of work: and for the
unification and improvement of the
scales of maps, of the symbols and
conventions used upon them, and of
the methods of representing relief.
All projects of importance are now
submitted to this hoard for advice
before being undertaken.

com MISSION oP PINE ARTS

The duties of the Commission of

Fine Arts consist of giving general
advice upon the location of statues,
fountains and monuments in the
public squares, streets and parks in
the District of Columbia; upon the
selection of models for statues,
fountains and monuments erected
under the authority of the United
States; and the method of selection

of the artists for their execution :
upon the plans and designs for pub-
lic structures and parks in the Dis-
trict of Columbia ; and upon all
questions involving matters of art
with which the Federal Government
is concerned. The commission ad-
vises upon general questions of art
whenever requested to do so bj the
President or a committee of Congress.

ARLINGTON MEMORIAL AMPHITHEATER COMMISSION

Created by public buildings act of
March 1. 1913, to direct the construc-
tion of a memorial amphitheater and
chapel in Arlington National Ceme-
tery, Virginia, at a cost of $750,000.
The building will consisl of an ellip-
tical structure inclosing an open-air
amphitheater with seating capacity
for about 5,000 persons. The exterior

of the building will be in the form of
:i colonnade of white Vermont mar-
ble with cm ranees at the ends of the
principal axes. The front entrance
will be <>n the cast, and this section
will contain on the firsl Hour a recep-

tion hall and stage of the auditorium,
a museum room on the second floor
and a chapel in the basement. The
entrance will be on the west side.

The Commission consists of the
Secretary of War. chairman: the
Secretary of the Navy, the sui>orin-
tendent of the Dinted Sfafes Capitol
Building and Grounds and repre-
sentatives of the Grand Army of the
Republic, Confederate Veterans and
United Spanish War Veterans.
Colonel Win. W. Harts. D. S. Army.
is the Executive and Disbursing
Officer of the Commission.

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

580

ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMISSION

The Alaskan Engineering Commission
was created under the act of March 12,
1014, which empowered, authorized, and
directed the President to locate, con-
struct, operate, or lease a railroad, or
railroads, to connect the interior of
Alaska with one or more of the open
navigable ports on the coast. Authority
was also granted to purchase existing
railroads, to construct, maintain, and
operate telegraph and telephone lines,
and to make reservations of public lands
in Alaska necessary for the purposes of
the railroad.

For the execution of this work a com-
mission of three engineers was appointed
by the President to make the necessary
surveys. They were directed to report
to the Secretary of the Interior, under
whom the President has placed the gen-
eral administration of the work.

NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR
AERONAUTICS

The National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics was appointed by the Presi-
dent, pursuant to act of Congress ap-
proval March .'!, 1915. Its membership
consists of two officers of the Army, two
officers of the Navy, a representative
each of the Smithsonian Institution, the
United States Weather Bureau, and the
United States Bureau of Standards, to-
gether with one member from the Treas-
ury Department and four professors
from various universities who are ac-
quainted with the needs of aeronautical
science, or skilled in aeronautical engi-
neering or its allied sciences. All the
members, as such, serve without com-
pensation.

The duties of the committee, as pro-
vided by Congress, are to supervise and
direct the scientific study of the prob-
lems of flight, with a view to their prac-
tical solution, and to determine the
problems which should be experimentally
attacked, and to discuss their solution
and their application to practical ques-
tions.

UNITED STATES BOARD OF MEDIATION
AND CONCILIATION

The purpose for which the Board of
Mediation and Conciliation was Estab-
lished is to settle by mediation, con-
ciliation, and arbitration controversies
concerning wages, hours of labor, or
conditions of employment that may arise
between common carriers engaged in
interstate transportation and their em-
ployees engaged in train operation or
train service. The board is an inde-
pendent office, not connected with any
department.

GENERAL SUPPLY COMMITTEE

It is the duty of the General Supply
Committee to make an annual schedule
of required miscellaneous supplies for

the use of each of the executive depart-
ments and other Government establish-
ments in Washington, to standardize
such supplies, eliminating all unneces-
sary grades and varieties, and to solicit
bids based upon formulas and specifica-
tions. It is composed of one officer from
each of the executive departments,
designated by the head thereof.

BOARD OF INDIAN COMMISSIONERS

The Board of Indian Commissioners,
created in 1SG!>, is a body of unpaid
citizens, appointed by the President, who
maintain an office in Washington, for
the expenses of which and of travel
Congress appropriates. The board is
not a bureau or division of any depart-
ment, but is purposely kept reasonably
independent and afforded opportunities
for investigation in order that it may
freely express an intelligent and impar-
tial opinion concerning Indian legis-
lation and administration. Its legal
duties are to visit and inspect branches
of the Indian Service, to co-operate with
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in
the purchase and inspection of Indian
supplies, and to report to the Secretary
of the Interior, to whom and to the
President the board acts in an advisory
capacity, with respect to plans for
civilizing or dealing with the Indians.

THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT
COMMISSION

The International Joint Commission
was created by treaty with Great Bri-
tain, and has jurisdiction over all cases
involving the use or obstruction or diver-
sion of waters forming the international
boundary or crossing the boundary be-
tween the United States and Canada,
and questions or matters of difference
involving the rights, obligations, or in-
terests of the United States or of the
Dominion of Canada.

COMMISSION FOR EQUITABLE DISTRI-
BUTION OF WATERS OF THE
RIO GRANDE

This commission was authorized by
the protocol of May 6, 1896, between
Mexico and the United States, and their
treaty of 1848, authorizing the appoint-
ment of "commissioners" to settle "any
disagreement" or "differences" between
the two countries. It is commonly
called "Commission for the Equitable
Distribution of the Waters of the Rio
Grande" — the boundary for about 1,300
miles between these two nations.

INTERNATIONAL (CANADIAN) BOUND-
ARY COMMISSIONS

The International (Canadian) Bound-
ary Commissions were authorized by
conventions or treaties between the
United States and Great Britain, as
follows :

690

ont rnrxTiiY AND its RESOURCES

i. January 2U loon. For defining
and marking the boundary between
Alaska and British Columbia. Length,
862 miles.

2. April 21, L906. For defining :m<l
marking the boundary between Alaska
and Canada, along the 141st meridian.
Length, 625 miles.

::. For defining and marking Che
boundary between the United States
and Canada from the Atlantic Ocean
to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception
of the Greal Lakes and the St. Law
rence River. Length, ::.ii4i miles.

UNITED STATES BUBEATJ OF EFFICIENCY

The duties (if the Bureau of Efiiciency
are to establish and maintain a system
of efficiency ratings for the executive
departments in the District of Columbia :
to investigate the Deeds of the several
executive departments and independent
establishments with respect to personnel,
and to investigate duplication of statis-
tical work and methods of business in
the- various branches of the Government
service.

COURT OF CLAIMS OF THE UNITED
STATES

This court was established by act of
Congress February 24. 1855. It has
general jurisdiction of all "claims
founded upon the Constitution of the

United States or any law of Congress,
except for pensions, or upon any regu
lations of an executive department, or
upon any contract, express or Implied,
with the Government of the United
states, or for damages, liquidated or
unliquidated, In cases not sounding in
tort, in respect of which claims the
party would be entitled to redress
against the United states, either in a
court of law, equity, or admiralty, if the

United States were suable, except claims

growing oul of the late Civil War and
commonly known as war claims," and

certain rejected claims. The court is
also vested with the jurisdiction of cer-
tain Indian depredation claims.

FEDEBAX WOK KM EN'S COMPENSATION
COMMISSION

The Federal Workmen's Compensation
Commission is charged with the admin-
istration of the Federal Workmen's Com-
pensation Law. The law provides for
the payment of 35 per cent of wages
during widowhood to the widow of any
workman employed by the Government
and killed in the discharge of duty, and
grants to a workman during period of
total disability a monthly payment of
two-thirds of his wages and a less
amount in the case of partial disability.
Provision is also made for payment to
dependents, other than the widow, in
case of death of a workman.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION

AT the entrance of Potomac
Park, in Washington, stands
one of the most beautiful
structures ever erected in the "West-
ern Hemisphere, namely, the build-
ing of the Pan-American Union.
The structure and grounds repre-
sent an investment of $1,100,000, of
which the American republics con-
tributed $250,000 and Dr. Andrew

Carnegie $S50,000. The architec-
ture is an appropriate combination
of the classical and Spanish renais-
sance. A lofty vestibule opens into
a typical Latin-American "patio," or
courtyard, in the center of which is
a beautiful fountain, while gorgeous
parrots squawk around and trop-
ical monkeys disport themselves in
cages. Plants and flowers of the

PAN-AMERICAN UNION, FRONT FACADE. WASHINGTON, D. C.
Copyright by Munii & Co., Inc.

592

01 I; COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

rarest flora of tropical America are
found everywhere, while under the
cornice are the coats-of-arms of the
American republics and the names
of men prominent in their history.
The glass roof above is operated by
electricity and can be closed al a
moment's notice. In the rear of the
patio is a wide corridor, now used
for exhibits of Latin-American
countries, and back of that is a
large reading and reference room.

The second tioor is approached by
two grand stairways and contains
a broad corridor, or foyer, in winch
are suspended the national flags of
the American republics. This foyer
opens upon the "Hall of the Amer-
icas," a large salon 100 feet in
length and 70 feet in width. On
this floor will also be found the
Governing Hoard room and offices.
In the rear of the main structure is
a beautiful sunken garden, with a

pool forming the central feature,
and the building of the Pan-Amer-
ican Annex forms the background.
The tile effects are marvelous.

It may well be asked what is the
meaning of this magnificent build-
ing? What i< its history, organiza-
tion ami purpose?

The Pan-American Union (for-
merly known as the International
Bureau of the American Republics)
was established in the year 1890 in
accordance with the resolutions
passed at the first Pan-American
conference, held at Washington in
1889-90, and presided over by Mi-.
Blaine, then Tinted State- Secre-
tary of State. It was indorsed and
continued by resolutions of the sec-
ond conference at Mexico in 1901;
the third, at Rio de Janeiro, in 190G.
and the fourth, at Buenos Aire-, in
1910. Its reorganization under the
present administration dates practi-

PATI0. PAN-AMERICAN UNION. WASHINGTON. D. C

THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION

50H

rally from January, 1907, following
the 'third conference, which was at-
tended by Elihu Root, then Secre-
tary of State.

The Pan- American Union is the
international organization and office
maintained by the twenty-one Amer-
ican republics, as follows : Argen-
tina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colom-
bia. Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala,
Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador,
United States, Uruguay and Vene-
zuela. It is devoted to the develop-
ment and advancement of commerce,
friendly intercourse and good under-
standing among these countries. It
is supported by quotas contributed
by each country, based upon the
population. Its affairs are admin-
istered by a director general and
assistant director, elected by and
responsible to a Governing Board,
which is composed of the Secretary
of State of the United States and
the diplomatic representatives in
Washington of the other American
governments. These two executive
officers are assisted by a staff of
international experts, statisticians,
commercial specialists, editors,

translators, compilers, librarians,
clerks and stenographers. The Gov-
erning Board holds regular meet-
ings to consider the work of the
Pan-American Union and to act
upon the reports and recommenda-
tions of the director general. This
board in turn selects a supervising
committee which considers matters
not requiring the attention of the
entire board. Appointments to the
staff are made by the director gen-
eral and the supervisory committee
only after rigid competitive examina-
tion of applicants. Although, being
an international institution, the Pan-
American Union is not under the
rules of the United States Civil
Service, its regulations covering ex-
aminations and additions to its staff
are even more strict than those of
the Civil Service and usually re-
quire an accurate and fluent knowl-
edge of Spanish or Portuguese.

Special pamphlets on the twenty
Latin-American republics, with spe-
cific information as to their form of
government, industries, etc., have
been issued and may be obtained by
addressing the Director - General,
Pan-American Union, Washington,
D. C.

THE "HALL OF THE AMERICAS"

594

OLR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

INDEX

A

Accidents, Automobile 228

Accidents, Mining 195

Accidents, Railway 156, 158

Aerological Observatory 413

Aeronautics 363

Aeronautics, Military 290

Aeronautics, National Advisory Com-
mission 589

Aeroplane, Mechanics of '■'•'■'■

Aeroplane Squadron, Rolling Stock

for 375

Aeroplanes, Bombing -">7'.(

Aeroplanes, Fighting 378

Aeroplanes, Scouting 376

Agricultural Implements 216

Agricultural Population 40

Agriculture 37

Agriculture, Department of 5 1 1

Agriculture. Intensive 63

Aircraft, Records 378

Airships 367

Alaska 327

Alaskan Fisheries 71

Aluminium 182

"A merica" 353

American Commerce 2.".1

American Flag •"•47

Animal Industry. Bureau id" 555

Antarctic Regions l"

A nticyclones 416

Antimony 184

Apples 50

Architect, Supervising Treasury.... 503

A relic KoniollS 10

Area of the United states 19

Area of United Slates and Foreign

Countries 21

Arlington Radio Station .':s.">

Army Rill 2M'

Army, Enlistments 284

Army. Recruiting 286

Army, Reserve 288

Army. United States 281

Arsenic 194

Asbestos 194

Asphall 195

Assay Office, New York 309

\si ronomy 123

Astrophysical Observatory 580

Attorney General 519

Atmosphere, The in

Aurora IIs

Automobile Industry 22::

Aviation, .Military 375

R

Balboa 4

Ba l loon Soundl ag 112

Balloons 364

Barley II

Barytes 188

Battleships, Wireless on 389

Beans 56

Bell, Alexander Graham 20S

Bicycles 217

Bill Washing Machine 297

Rills. Legislative 4.1s

Biological Survey 556

Bismuth 1S4

Rlast Furnaces 215

Blizzards 419

Bombing Aeroplanes 379

Borax 195

Box Manufacture 80

Brick 190

Bridge, Hell Gate 151

Bromine 194

Buckwheat 45

Buildings, Tall 21o

Bullion, Melting and Refining of . . 309

Butter 213

Butter Churning 60

C

Cabinet, The 476

('allies of the World 382

Calcium Chloride 194

Canning and Preserving 212

Capitol at Washington 4.">r>

Carriages 217

Cars. Railway 147

('attic Raising Regions ">!*

Cattle Statistics CO

Cement 190

Census Bureau 564

Census. First 482

Cheese 213

Chemicals 220

chemistry. Bureau of 556

Children's Bureau 574

( Ihromic l ron ( >re 1S4

Cities of the United states 29

Civil Service Commission 586

Claims. Court of 590

Clay and Clay Products 190

Climate ... 422

Cloud Forms 410, 420

Coal ISC,

Coal Production, World's 183

Coasl and Geodetic Survey 127

Coasl Guard 139, 502

Cocoa, World's Production of 55

Cod 70

Coffee, World's Production of 55

Coins. Counting, l>y Machines 29.">

Coins, Legal WeUhl "( 320

Coins. Minting of 313

Coke oven By Products 186

College enrollment 255

Columbus, Discoveries of 2

Comets 4.'!7

TNDE^

595

Commerce, American 231

Commercial Preparedness 245

Comptroller of the Currencj 494

C lissioner of Patents 540

Construction and Repair, Bureau of 536

Comptroller of the Treasury 498

Commerce, Department of 561

Consular Service 485

Copper 180

Copper, World's Production of 197

Cordage 213

Corn 42

Cotton 47, 49

Cotton Goods 213

Cotton, World's Production of 48

Court of Claims, U. S 590

Crossties 80

Crossties Purchased . . : 82

Crosstk Wood for 82

Culebra Cut 117

Cultivation, World's Commercial. ... 39

Cusk 70

Cyclones 416

D

Daguerre 207

Dairy Production. World's 64

Declaration of Independence. . .486. 487

Defense, Council of National 585

Department of State 479

Derelicts, Destroying 142

Desertions, Navy 274

Diamonds, World's Production of. . 197

Diesel, Dr 209

Dirigible Balloons 368

Dutch Possessions 13

Dye Plants 249

Dyestuffs 220

E

Eads, James B 205

Earthquakes 9

Edison, Thomas A 198

Education 255, 544

Eiffel Tower Wireless 391

Electric Cars 217

Electrical Industry 217

Ellis Island .....' 35, 501

Education 255. 544

Engraving and Printing. Bureau

of 299, 499

Enlisted Men. Navy 272

Enlistments. Army 284

Entomology, Bureau of 556

Ericsson, John 205

Ethnology. Bureau of 579

Explosives 220

Exports and Imports 232, 233

Express Service 154

F

Families per Square Mile 24

Farm Products 38. 62

Federal Reserve Act 248

Federal Reserve Board 587

Federal Trade Commission . . . 248. 587

Feldspar 195

Felt Goods 213

Fertilizers 220

Fighting Aeroplanes 378

Fine Arts Commission 588

Fire Lookout 74

Fins. Forest ...•,.•.. 86

Fish Commission Far 69

Fish We Fat 67

Fisheries. Bureau of 72, 566

Fisheries of the World 66

Fisheries Products 68

Flag. F.attle. of Lake Erie 358

Flags, Trophy, of the F. s. Navy.. 357

Flax 50

Flour and Grist Mills 212

Fluorspar 190

Foghorn 13S

Footwear '. 219

Foreign Trade Problems 247

Forest Fires 84

Forest Regions, Natural 81

Forests and Forestry 75. 555

Forests, National 84

Freight Service. Railway 152, 154

French Possessions 13

Fuels 186

Fuller's Earth 195

G

Gaillard Cut 117

Garnet 195

Gas Industry 221

Gas, Natural 188

Gatling. R. J 206

(Jems and Precious Stones 195

General Staff Corps 507

Geodetic Survey 127

Geographical Discovery, Progress of .1, 11

Geological Survey 119

Geographic Board. F. S 588

German Possessions. Former 13

Gevsers 94

Glacier Park 98

Glass 221

Gloves, Leather 219

Glucose 222

Goethals, Colonel 118

Gold 177

Gold Production, World's 179

Good Roads and Bad 103

Government Protection at Sea 135

Government Surveys 119

Granite Production 196

Graphite 195

Gravel 196

Great Britain's Possessions 12

Greenbacks, How Made 299

Guam 344

Gypsum 192

H

Haddock 67

Hake 71

Hail 421

Halibut 67. 70

Halos 420

Hats 213

Hawaiian islands .- 330

Hay 46

Health Service. F. S. Public 500

Heavens Above 423

Herring 70

Hides and Skins 64

Houses of Congress 455

Hops 54

Horses and Mules 60

Hosiery 213

House of Representatives 457

596

or It COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES

House of Congress 455

Howe, Elias, .lr 202

Humiditj 119

1 1 j ill ogra phi< i >ffli • 129

I

Ice, Artificial 221

Illiteracy 257

Immigration 33, 34. 573

Imports and Exports 232

Inaugural Address, President Deliv-
ering 404

Inaugural Procession 450

Indian Population 26

Industrial Preparedness 245

Insurance, War Kisk 504

Intensive Agriculture 63

Interior, Department of tin' 539

Internal Revenue, Commission of. . 496

Intel-state Commerce Commission.. 585

Inventors. Hired 204

Iron Ore and I rem 180

Iron Ore. Chromic 184

Iron. World's Production of 183

Irrigation (See Reclamation)

Isochronic Distances of the World.. 346

.1

Jupiter 43G

Justice. Department of 51!)

Jute 213

K

Knit floods 213

Kodak. Autographic Patent 206

L

Labor, Department of 572

Labor statistics. Bureau of 574

Land and Sea. Profiles of 6. 7

Land Office, General 544

Languages of the World 25

Laths 77

Laundries 222

Lead 182

Lead. World's Production of 197

Leather Industry 219

Legislative Halls 455

Library of Congress 261

Libraries 260

Lighthouses, Bureau of 135, 566

Lightning 418

Lightships I-58

Lime 11C;

Limestone Production 196

Lincoln Highway 106

Linoleum 214

Live Stock 60

Livingstone 5

Lobsters J}

Locks. Panama 1 10, 111, 113

Locomotive. Powdered Coal Burning 151

i locomotives «'

Lumber Cut *£

Lumber Production < <

M

Machine Guns 201

Magnesite 1!,.>

Mail Cars 160

Maine. Ensign of the 362

Males and Females, Proportion of. 30

Ma oga oese 184

Manufactures 211

Maps. Geologic 12o

Marble Produ< tion 196

Mars 430

Maxim, Sir Hiram 208

Meal Packing 61

Median Point 22

Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of. . 534

Men of Progress 201

Metallic Products, Miscellaneous... 184

Metals. Scrap 186

Meteors 437

Miea 196

Mileage, Railway, of the L. S 146

Military Aviation 375

Military Bureaus 511

Military Establishment 282

Militia, Peace Strength of 280, 289

Milk. Condensed 213

Milky Way 4.",o

Mineral Industry of the L. S 177

.Mineral Paints 196

Mine.. Bureau of 191, 193, o44

Mining Accidents 195

Mint, Director of the 496

Minting of Coins 313

Mirage 421

Money, Destruction of <»ld 292

Money in Circulation 294

Money. Dncle Sam's 293

Monuments, National lot

Moon 434, 438

Motion Pictures in the Making. . . . 399

Motorcycles 217

Moving Picture Studio. First 409

Moving Pictures Under Water 398

Mules and Horses 60

Mussel 72

N

National Museum 576

National Parks. (>ur 95

Nation. Heart of the 449

Natural Gas 188

Naturalization 574

Nauen Wireless Station 393

Naval Consulting Board 270

Naval Officers 276

Navigation. Bureau of 528, 567

Navy. Cost of 269

Navy, Department of the 526

Navy, Enlisted Men 272

Navy Expenditures 270

Navy, The New 263

Navy Increase Since 1903 203

Navy. Secretary of the 526

Naval < observatory 529

Navy, Vessels of 266

Nebulae 429

Negro Population 26

Newspaper Plant. Railway 157

Nickel L84

Non .Metallic Products 188

Notes Issued and Redeemed 290

O

Oats 44

Occupations 34, •".•">

Oilcloth 214

oils. Vegetable, World's Production

of . 187

INDEX

507

Ore Handling. Mechanical 244

Organization of Government 478

Organs 222

P

Paints and Varnishes 220

Paints. Mineral 196

Panama Canal 109

Panama Canal Zone 345

Pan-American Union 591

Paper 219

Parcel Post 162

Parks, National, Our 95

Passenger Service, Railway .... 152. 154

Patent. Early 200

Patent Office 199. 540, 541

Patents Increasing 202

Peaches 54

Pearv, Admiral 8

Peas* 56

Pension Office 543

Petroleum 185, 187, 1S8

Philippine Islands 335

Phonographs 222

Phosphate Rock 192

Pianos 222

Pipe, Cast Iron 217

Planets 433

Plant Industry 555

Platinum IT 8

Poles 80

Pollock 70

Ponce de Leon 3

Population of the IT. S 19

Population of the World 23

Population. Center of 20, 22

Porto Rico 341

Portuguese Possessions 13

Possessions. Our Non-Contiguous . . . 327

Postmaster General 522

Postage Stamps. Making 171

Postal Savings 105

Postal Service 161

Post Office Department 522

Post Office Expenditures 168

Potash 192

Potatoes 45

Pottery Products 190

Powder. Naval 278

Power Development. Reclamation.. 91
Precious Stones. World's Production

of 195, 197

Precipitation 421

Preparedness. Commercial and In-
dustrial 245

President, Letter from the 172

President, The 405

Printing and Publishing 220

Printing Office. Government 582

Progress of Geographical Discovery. 11

Pulp, Wood 219

Purchases Made by U. S 240

Q

Quarry Industry 196

Quicksilver 184

R

Races of IT. S 24

Races of the World 27

Radium 184

Railroads of the U, S 145

Railway Mail 160

Railway Wireless 387

Realm of the Air. The 411

Reclamation Service 87

Records. Aircraft 378

Religions of the World 31

Resources, National 173

Revenue, Protection of 321

Rice 50, 212

Roads. Good and Bad 103

Roads. Public, Office of 559

Rolling Mills 215

Roosevelt Dam 93

Rosin 221

Rubber Goods 221

Rubber. World's Production of 48

Rural Free Delivery 164

Rye 45

S

Safety First Train 147

Salt 194

Samoan Islands 344

Sand 196

Sandstone Production 196

Saturn 432, 437

School Enrollment 255

Scouting Aeroplanes 376

Seal Fisheries 71

Seal of the U. S 480

Seaplanes 380

Seasons, March of the 414

Senate Chamber 456

Sheep 65

Sheep Raising Regions 59

Sleet 421

Shipbuilding 217

Shipping Board 248

Ship Registry Act 248

Ship Wireless Stations 389

Silk 214

Silver 178

Silver Production, World's 179

Skins and Hides 64

Skv Line, New York's 33

Slate 196

Slaughtering and Meat Packing... 212

Small Arms. Military 289

Smithsonian Institution 575

Smudge Pots 58

Smuggling 325

Soap 221

Soapstone 196

South Pole Expedition 10

Standards, Bureau of 565

Stamps 162

Stamps, Manufacture of 304

Starch 222

Star Maps 439. 445

Stars 427

"Star Spangled Banner" 351

State, Department of 479

Steamboat Inspection Service 569

Steam Cars 217

Steam Engineering, Bureau of 534

Steel Works 215

St. Elmo's Fire 418

Stockholders. Railway 150

Street Railways 158

Suffrage. Woman's 32

Sugar 58

Sugar. World's Production of 57

Sulphur 194

598

OUB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOl RCES

Sulphuric Acid 1!>4

Supreme Court 461

Surf Boat 141

Survey, Coast and G letic 127

Survey, Geological 117

Survey. Bydrographic 129

Surveying, Romance of 125

Surveys, Government 119

Swine 65

Sword Fish 70

T

Talc 196

Talking Machines 222

Tariff Commission 248

Tea, World's Production of 55

Teachers 258

Telegraphic Communications of the

World 382

Telegraphy, Wireless 383

Telephony Without Wires 392

Ti lescopes 425

Territory, Acquisition of 21

Textiles 213

Thunderstorms 417

Tide Predictor 131

Tile and Brick 190

Tile Fish 72

Timber Cut by Species 79

Timber Regions of the World 78

Timber Supply 75

Tin 186

Tin and Terne Plate 217

Tin, World's Production of 197

Titanium 186

Tobacco 50, 52, 53

Tobacco Culture 53

Tobacco, World's Production of. ... 51

Tomato Plants 54

Tolls, Panama Canal 112

Topographic Work 122

Tornadoes 417

Track. Railway 146

Transportation 217

Treasury 293

Treasurer of the U. S 495

Treasury. Department of the 493

Treasury Receipts and Disburse-
ments 298

Tree, Oldest 95

Triangulatiou Survey 126

Tungsten 186

Turpentine jjjj]

Twine 213

0

Uncle Sam's Autobiography 447

United States 1'" ions 13

Uranium 1S6

Y

Vanadium 186

Vegetable <»ils. World's Production

"f 187

Vespucci. Amerigo 3

Vocational Education 259

Volcanoes or tie- World 9

w

Wa irons 217

War College, Army 508

War. Department of 506

War Game, Army 510

War. Secretary of 501',

Washington Monument 451

Washington, the Nation's City 447

Water Power on National forests.. 85

Weather Bureau 54s

Westinghouse, George 207

Wlcat 4:;

Whistle. Uncle Sam's 44o'

White Bouse 4<'.T

WiUon. A. P. 203

Wind Bits of the Earth 4 15

Wine. World's Production of 54

Wire 216

Wireless. Railway 387

Wireless Telegraphy 383

Woman's Suffrage '■'■-

Wood Preservation 82

Woolen and Worsted Goods 215

Woolworth Building l'54

Workmen's Compensation, Federal. 59<i

Wright Brothers 363

Y

Yards and Docks. Bureau of 531

Vo-emite loo. 102

Z

Zeppelin Airships 378

Zinc 182

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